CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (2024)

1

Q

What is medulloblastoma?

A

Medulloblastoma is a malignant brain tumor that occurs predominantly in children and exclusively in the cerebellum.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

2

Q

What markers are nearly always expressed in medulloblastoma?

A

Neuronal and glial markers are nearly always expressed in medulloblastoma.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

3

Q

What is the prognosis for untreated patients with medulloblastoma?

A

The prognosis for untreated patients is dismal; however, medulloblastoma is exquisitely radiosensitive.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

4

Q

What are primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs), and how are they related to medulloblastoma?

A

Tumors of similar histologic type and a poor degree of differentiation found elsewhere in the nervous system are called primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs), which are related to medulloblastoma.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

5

Q

Describe the morphology of medulloblastoma.

A

Medulloblastomas are extremely cellular, with sheets of anaplastic (“small blue”) cells. Individual tumor cells are small, with little cytoplasm and hyperchromatic nuclei.

Focal neuronal differentiation may be seen in the form of the Homer Wright or neuroblastic rosette.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

6

Q

What are some clinical features associated with medulloblastoma?

A

Tumors with MYC amplifications are associated with poor outcomes, while those linked with mutations in genes of the WNT signaling pathway have a more favorable course.

Many tumors also have mutations that activate the sonic hedgehog (shh) pathway, which plays a critical role in tumorigenesis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

7

Q

T167 What is cerebral edema?

A

Cerebral edema is the accumulation of excess fluid within the brain parenchyma, resulting in widened gyri, narrowing of sulci, and compression of ventricles. It can be focal or diffuse.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

8

Q

What are the two types of cerebral edema that often occur together, particularly after injury?

A

The two types of cerebral edema are vasogenic edema and cytotoxic edema.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

9

Q

Describe vasogenic edema

A

Vasogenic edema occurs when the integrity of the normal blood-brain barrier (BBB) is disrupted, allowing fluid to shift from the vascular compartment into the extracellular spaces of the brain.

It can be either generalized or localized and is often associated with focal lesions such as primary metastatic tumors or abscesses.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

10

Q

Describe cytotoxic edema

A

Cytotoxic edema involves an increase in the intracellular fluid, secondary to neuronal and glial cell membrane injury, such as that following a generalized hypoxic-ischemic insult or exposure to certain toxins.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

11

Q

What is interstitial edema?

A

Interstitial edema results from increased intracerebral influx of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through the ependymal lining, leading to fluid accumulation in the periventricular white matter. It is typically a complication of hydrocephalus.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

12

Q

How does the brain appear macroscopically in generalized cerebral edema?

A

In generalized edema, the gyri are flattened, the sulci are narrowed, and the ventricular cavities are compressed, giving the brain a softer appearance that seems to “overfill” the cranial vault.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

13

Q

What is intracranial pressure (ICP)?

A

Intracranial pressure is the pressure exerted inside the skull, which can increase due to various factors and may result in or from brain injury.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

14

Q

What are some causes of increased intracranial pressure?

A

Some causes of increased intracranial pressure include:

a. Rise in pressure of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), such as in increased CSF volume or meningitis.

b. Tumors.

c. Hydrocephalus.

d. The added mass of epidural, subdural, and intracranial hematomas.

e. Cerebral edema, which can develop around large contusions, from diffuse vascular injury, or as a result of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (HIE).

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

15

Q

How can increases in intracranial pressure damage the brain?

A

Increases in intracranial pressure can damage the brain by:

Decreasing perfusion, which can lead to the collapse of brain capillaries and result in global ischemia.

Displacing tissue across dural barriers inside the skull or through openings in the skull, known as herniation.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

16

Q

What is herniation?

A

Herniation is the displacement of brain tissue between the dural barriers or out of the skull, occurring when the volume inside the skull increases beyond the limit permitted by compression of veins and displacement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) due to increased intracranial pressure.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

17

Q

What are the main types of herniation?

A

Subfalcine, Transtentorial (uncinate) herniation, Tonsillar herniation, Retrograde transtentorial herniation., Herniation out of the skull, not through the foramen magnum.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

18

Q

Subfalcine (cingulate) herniation

A

Unilateral or asymmetric expansion of a cerebral hemisphere displaces the cingulate gyrus under the edge of the falx, potentially compressing branches of the anterior cerebral artery.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

19

Q

Transtentorial (uncinate) herniation

A

The medial aspect of the temporal lobe is compressed against the free margin of the tentorium,

leading to compression of the third cranial nerve (resulting in pupillary dilation and impairment of ocular movements), compression of the posterior cerebral artery (resulting in ischemic injury to the primary visual cortex), and potentially ipsilateral hemiparesis if the contralateral cerebral peduncle is compressed against the tentorium.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

20

Q

Tonsillar herniation

A

Displacement of the cerebellar tonsils through the foramen magnum, causing compression of vital respiratory and cardiac centers in the medulla and presenting a life-threatening situation.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

21

Q

What is hydrocephalus?

A

Hydrocephalus is the accumulation of excessive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the ventricles of the brain.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

22

Q

What are the main reasons for hydrocephalus?

A

Impaired CSF flow.

Impaired CSF resorption.

Rarely, overproduction of CSF (e.g., tumor of the choroid plexus).

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

23

Q

What are the two types of hydrocephalus?

A

  • Non-communicating hydrocephalus: Caused by CSF flow obstruction, resulting in enlargement of a portion of the ventricles while the remainder doesn’t. Mainly due to obstruction of the foramen of Monro or compression of the cerebral aqueduct.
  • Communicating hydrocephalus: Caused by impaired CSF reabsorption in the absence of CSF flow obstruction between the ventricles and the subarachnoid space, leading to enlargement of the entire ventricular system.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

24

Q

What is the difference in presentation between hydrocephalus developing in infancy and that developing after cranial suture closure?

A

Hydrocephalus developing in infancy before the closure of cranial sutures is associated with enlargement of the head. In contrast, hydrocephalus developing after fusion of the sutures is associated with expansion of the ventricles and increased intracranial pressure, without a change in head circumference.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

25

Q

What is hydrocephalus ex vacuo?

A

Hydrocephalus ex vacuo is the dilation of the ventricular system with a compensatory increase in CSF volume secondary to a loss of brain parenchyma, such as after infarcts or with degenerative diseases.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

26

Q

T168 What are neural tube defects (NTDs)?

A

Neural tube defects are malformations of the spinal cord and brain caused by the failure of closure of the neural tube during embryonic development.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

27

Q

What is the most common cause of NTDs, and how can it be prevented?

A

Folate deficiency during the initial weeks of gestation increases the risk of NTDs. Supplementation with folate has been shown to reduce the risk of NTDs.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

28

Q

What are the main types of spina bifida, and how do they differ?

A

  • Spina bifida occulta: Vertebral arches are absent, but there is no protrusion of the spinal cord or meninges.
  • Meningocele: A meningeal sac protrudes through the bone defect in the lumbosacral area.
  • Meningomyelocele: The sac contains malformed spinal cord tissue. In severe cases, neural tissue lies on the dorsal surface of the fetus.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

29

Q

What are the malformations associated with the anterior end of the neural tube?

A

  • Anencephaly: The brain protrudes through a defect in the cranial vault and is gradually destroyed, leaving a small, disorganized mass of neural tissue.
  • Encephalocele: Brain tissue protrudes through a defect in the skull, usually in the occipital area. Large occipital encephaloceles can be incompatible with life.
  • Craniorachischisis: Defective closure of the hindbrain-cervical junction.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

30

Q

How can NTDs be detected early?

A

Screening for elevated α-fetoprotein levels has increased the early detection of neural tube defects.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

31

Q

What are forebrain malformations characterized by?

A

Forebrain malformations are characterized by abnormalities in the development of neurons and glial cells, resulting in structural anomalies in the brain.

Các dị tật ở não trước được đặc trưng bởi những bất thường trong sự phát triển của các tế bào thần kinh và tế bào đệm, dẫn đến các bất thường về cấu trúc trong não.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

32

Q

What are the main types of forebrain malformations?

A

  • Megalencephaly (abnormally large brain volume) or microencephaly (abnormally small brain volume).
  • Lissencephaly (agyria) or pachygyria: Absent or reduced gyration of the brain, leading to a smooth-surfaced cortex with abnormal thickening.
  • Polymicrogyria: Increased number of irregularly formed gyri, resulting in a bumpy or cobblestone-like brain surface.
  • Holoprosencephaly: Disruption of the normal midline division of the forebrain, ranging from mild forms with absence of olfactory bulbs to severe forms with a single undivided brain hemisphere.
  • Focally disordered cortex (dysplastic cortex) and neuronal heterotopias: Abnormalities in cortical organization, with neurons stranded beneath the cortex in nodules or bands.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

33

Q

What are some causes of forebrain malformations?

A

Mutations in genes that control neuronal migration are implicated in forebrain malformations. Other factors such as fetal alcohol syndrome and viral infections (e.g., HIV-1 acquired in utero) can also contribute to these malformations.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

34

Q

What are posterior fossa anomalies characterized by?

A

Posterior fossa anomalies result in abnormalities of the cerebellum.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

35

Q

Describe the Chiari type II malformation

A

là một rối loạn cấu trúc nghiêm trọng, trong đó hành não và tiểu não bị đẩy xuống qua lỗ lớn (foramen magnum) vào ống sống. Thường liên quan đến tật nứt đốt sống (spina bifida).

The Chiari type II malformation is characterized by abnormalities of the posterior fossa, including a large foramen magnum, low insertion of the tentorium, and a shallow posterior fossa.

This results in crowding and displacement of the cerebellum and brainstem into the cervical canal. Additionally, the cerebellum may prolapse upward through the tentorial opening.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

36

Q

What is the Chiari type I malformation?

A

The Chiari type I malformation involves low-lying cerebellar tonsils that extend through the foramen magnum.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

37

Q

What is Dandy-Walker malformation?

A

Dandy-Walker malformation is a spectrum of posterior fossa abnormality characterized by complete or partial agenesis of the cerebellar vermis, with preservation of the cerebellar hemispheres.

This condition is associated with obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow out of the fourth ventricle, leading to dilation of the ventricle and the formation of a large posterior fossa cyst.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

38

Q

What are the major types of injury that occur in the perinatal period?

A

The major types of injury that occur in the perinatal period are hemorrhages and infarcts.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

39

Q

What is cerebral palsy?

A

Cerebral palsy is a term for nonprogressive neurologic motor deficits characterized by spasticity, dystonia, ataxia or athetosis, and paresis attributable to injury occurring during the prenatal and perinatal periods.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

40

Q

What is a common risk factor for intraparenchymal hemorrhage in premature infants?

A

In premature infants, there is an increased risk of intraparenchymal hemorrhage within the germinal matrix, most often adjacent to the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

41

Q

What is periventricular leukomalacia?

A

Periventricular leukomalacia refers to infarcts that may occur in the supratentorial periventricular white matter, especially in premature babies. The residua of these infarcts are chalky yellow plaques consisting of discrete regions of white matter necrosis and mineralization.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

42

Q

T169 What are the two main classifications of meningitis based on the appearance of cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Meningitis can be classified as purulent (bacterial) or serous (viral) based on the appearance of cerebrospinal fluid.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

43

Q

What are the common signs of infectious meningitis?

A

Common signs of infectious meningitis include headache, neck stiffness, fever, photophobia, nausea and vomiting, mental confusion, somnolence, Brudzinski sign, and Kernig sign.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

44

Q

What are the most common bacteria causing acute bacterial meningitis?

A

The most common bacteria causing acute bacterial meningitis include Group B streptococcus, E. coli, and Listeria monocytogenes affecting neonates;

Neisseria meningitidis affecting children and young adults; and Streptococcus pneumoniae affecting adults and the elderly.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

45

Q

What are the common signs of aseptic (viral) meningitis?

A

Common signs of aseptic (viral) meningitis include fever, photophobia, and meningeal irritation.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

46

Q

What is the typical cell type seen in cerebrospinal fluid analysis for bacterial meningitis?

A

Neutrophils are typically seen in cerebrospinal fluid analysis for bacterial meningitis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

47

Q

What are the main causes of chronic meningitis?

A

Chronic meningitis is mainly caused by mycobacteria (e.g., M. tuberculosis) and spirochetes (e.g., Treponema pallidum).

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

48

Q

What are the signs of tuberculous meningitis?

A

Signs of tuberculous meningitis include headache, malaise, mental confusion, and vomiting.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

49

Q

What are the typical findings in cerebrospinal fluid analysis for tuberculous meningitis?

A

In cerebrospinal fluid analysis for tuberculous meningitis, there is a moderate increase in protein level and mononuclear cells, while glucose level is reduced or normal.

Trong phân tích dịch não tủy cho viêm màng não do lao, có sự gia tăng vừa phải mức protein và các tế bào đơn nhân, trong khi mức glucose giảm hoặc bình thường.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

50

Q

What is a characteristic lesion associated with tuberculous meningitis?

A

A characteristic lesion associated with tuberculous meningitis is a tuberculoma, which is a circ*mscribed intraparenchymal mass.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

51

Q

What are the neurological manifestations of paretic neurosyphilis?

A

Paretic neurosyphilis manifests as progressive loss of mental and physical functions with mood alterations, terminating in severe dementia.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

52

Q

What is tabes dorsalis?

A

Tabes dorsalis is a form of neurosyphilis resulting from damage to the sensory nerves in the dorsal roots, leading to impaired joint position sense, ataxia, loss of pain sensation, and other sensory disturbances.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

53

Q

What are the complications of meningitis?

A

Complications of meningitis include:

Hydrocephalus resulting from obstruction of CSF due to scarring of meninges

Neurologic defects due to destruction of underlying brain tissue

Epilepsy due to focal damage of the brain or scarring of meninges

Abscess formation in the brain or subdural spaces (especially in children)

Spinal or cranial nerve compression or constriction, as seen in tabes dorsalis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

54

Q

What is viral encephalitis?

A

Viral encephalitis is a parenchymal infection of the brain almost always associated with meningeal inflammation, known as meningoencephalitis.

It is primarily caused by viruses and can involve either diffuse inflammation throughout the brain or localized inflammation to specific areas.

Characteristic histologic features include perivascular and parenchymal mononuclear cell infiltrates, microglial nodules, and neuronophagia.The nervous system is highly susceptible to viruses such as rabies and polio.

Additionally, the CNS can be damaged by immune mechanisms following systemic viral infections, and intrauterine viral infections may lead to congenital malformations like those seen in rubella.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

55

Q

Arboviruses morphology, characteristics

A

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (1)

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

56

Q

Herpes simplex virus morphology, characteristics

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

57

Q

Cytomegalovirus morphology, characteristics

A

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (3)

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

58

Q

Polio and rabies morphology, characteristics

A

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (4)

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

59

Q

Hiv virus

A

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (5)

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

60

Q

Jc virus

A

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (6)

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

61

Q

What are the characteristics of fungal encephalitis?

A

Fungal infections in the brain typically result in parenchymal granulomas or abscesses, often accompanied by meningitis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

62

Q

What are the distinctive patterns of fungal infections in the brain?

A

  1. Candida albicans: It produces multiple microabscesses, with or without granuloma formation.
  2. Mucormycosis: Usually affects the nasal cavity or sinuses of diabetic patients with ketoacidosis. It may spread to the brain through vascular invasion or direct extension through the cribriform plate.
  3. Aspergillus fumigatus: Causes widespread septic hemorrhagic infarctions due to its predilection for blood vessel wall invasion and subsequent thrombosis.
  4. Cryptococcus neoformans: Can lead to meningitis and meningoencephalitis, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. The CSF may show few cells but elevated protein, with mucoid encapsulated yeasts visible on India ink preparations.

Extension into the brain follows vessels in the Virchow-Robin spaces, resulting in a “soap bubble”–like appearance.Other fungi such as Histoplasma capsulatum,

Coccidioides immitis, and Blastomyces dermatitidis may also infect the CNS, especially in immunosuppressed individuals, particularly in endemic areas

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

63

Q

What is cerebral toxoplasmosis, and what are its clinical manifestations?

A

Cerebral toxoplasmosis is a cerebral infection caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, often occurring in immunosuppressed adults or newborns infected in utero. In adults, symptoms are subacute and may be both focal and diffuse. Lesions typically exhibit edema, resulting in ring-enhancing lesions

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

64

Q

What are the clinical features of cerebral toxoplasmosis in newborns infected in utero?

A

In newborns, cerebral toxoplasmosis manifests as the triad of chorioretinitis, hydrocephalus, and intracranial calcifications. The severity of CNS abnormalities is highest when the infection occurs early in gestation, potentially leading to obstruction of the aqueduct of Sylvius and hydrocephalus.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

65

Q

Describe the morphological features of cerebral toxoplasmosis in immunosuppressed adults

A

In immunosuppressed adults, cerebral toxoplasmosis presents with abscesses, often multiple and commonly involving the cerebral cortex and deep gray nuclei

Acute lesions show central necrosis with variable petechiae, surrounded by acute and chronic inflammation, macrophage infiltration, and vascular proliferation.

Ở người lớn bị suy giảm miễn dịch, bệnh toxoplasmosis não biểu hiện dưới dạng các áp xe, thường là nhiều và thường liên quan đến vỏ não và các nhân xám sâu. Các tổn thương cấp tính cho thấy hoại tử trung tâm với các nốt xuất huyết nhỏ khác nhau, bao quanh bởi viêm cấp tính và mãn tính, thâm nhiễm đại thực bào và tăng sinh mạch máu.

  • Bệnh toxoplasmosis não ở người lớn bị suy giảm miễn dịch thường xuất hiện dưới dạng áp xe, thường là nhiều, liên quan đến vỏ não và các nhân xám sâu.
  • Tổn thương cấp tính: Hoại tử trung tâm, nốt xuất huyết nhỏ, viêm cấp tính và mãn tính, thâm nhiễm đại thực bào và tăng sinh mạch máu.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

66

Q

What is cysticercosis, and how does it manifest within the brain?

A

Cysticercosis is the result of an end-stage infection by the tapeworm Taenia solium. Larval organisms, if ingested, encyst within the brain and subarachnoid space.

Manifestations typically include mass lesions and seizures. The cyst contains a smooth lining, and the body wall and hooklets from mouth parts are often identifiable.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

67

Q

Explain the clinical syndromes associated with amebiasis.

A

Amebiasis can manifest with different clinical syndromes depending on the causative pathogen. Naegleria spp. cause rapidly fatal necrotizing encephalitis associated with swimming in warm nonflowing fresh water.

Acanthamoeba can lead to chronic granulomatous meningoencephalitis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

68

Q

T171 What are transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), and what causes them?

A

TSEs are neurodegenerative diseases caused by the accumulation of abnormal prion proteins resulting from misfolding of normal prion proteins (PrPc).

This abnormal folding, converting PrPc into PrPSc, leads to neuronal degeneration and loss. PrPSc is resistant to proteases and forms insoluble aggregates.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

69

Q

How do prion diseases propagate and spread within the body?

A

Prion diseases are unique in that they are self-propagating and transmissible. Once abnormal PrPSc is generated endogenously or introduced into the body, it converts normal PrPc into abnormal forms. This propagation process perpetuates the disease within the body.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

70

Q

What are the main categories of human prion diseases, and how do they differ?

A

Human prion diseases can be categorized into sporadic, familial, and environmentally acquired forms. Sporadic cases, like sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD), arise spontaneously due to spontaneous conformational changes in PrPc.

Familial cases (fCJD) result from mutations in the PRNP gene, accelerating the rate of conformational change.

Environmentally acquired cases, such as iatrogenic transmission or ingestion of contaminated meat (e.g., BSE), result from exposure to infectious PrPSc.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

71

Q

Describe the pathological features of prion diseases in the brain

A

Pathologically, prion diseases exhibit intracytoplasmic vacuoles in neurons and glial cells.

As the disease progresses, vacuolization becomes more pronounced, and the cortical neuropil develops a spongy appearance, leading to the term “spongiform encephalopathy.”

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

72

Q

What is Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), and how does it typically occur?

A

CJD is the most common spongiform encephalopathy, often occurring sporadically but rarely associated with exposure to prion-infected human tissue, such as through human growth hormone or corneal transplant.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

73

Q

What are the clinical features of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)?

A

CJD manifests as a rapidly progressive dementing illness, characterized by a short duration from the onset of subtle changes in memory and behavior to death in less than a year.

Symptoms include rapidly progressive dementia, ataxia (cerebellar involvement), and startle myoclonus. EEG may show spike-wave complexes.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

74

Q

Describe the pathological features of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in the brain.

A

Pathologically, CJD is characterized by spongiform transformation of the cerebral cortex and deep gray matter structures (such as the caudate and putamen).

There is typically little macroscopic evidence of brain atrophy, and no inflammatory infiltrate is present. The presence of proteinase K–resistant PrPsc in tissue confirms the diagnosis.

Thông thường, không có bằng chứng đại thể rõ ràng về sự teo não, và không có sự thâm nhập viêm hiện diện. Sự có mặt của PrPsc kháng proteinase K trong mô xác nhận chẩn đoán.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

75

Q

What is Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD), and how does it differ from classic CJD?

A

vCJD is a form of the disease associated with exposure to bovine spongiform encephalopathy (“mad cow disease”).

It affects young adults and often presents with behavioral disorders in early stages.

The neurologic syndrome progresses more slowly compared to other forms of CJD.

Pathologically, it shares a similar appearance with other types of CJD, but vCJD also exhibits abundant cortical amyloid plaques surrounded by spongiform change.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

76

Q

What distinguishes Familial Fatal Insomnia from other prion diseases?

A

Familial Fatal Insomnia is an inherited form of prion disease characterized by severe insomnia and an exaggerated startle response.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

77

Q

T172 What is neurodegeneration, and what are its main characteristics?

A

Neurodegeneration is the progressive, slow, and irreversible loss of neurons within the gray matter, often due to the accumulation of proteins that damage neurons. This process is characterized by the loss of memory, language, and planning abilities, with normal consciousness.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

78

Q

What are the two main groups of clinical manifestations associated with neurodegenerative diseases?

A

The two main groups are dementias, which affect the cerebral cortex and result in loss of memory, language, and planning abilities, and movement disorders, which affect the basal ganglia and brain stem.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

79

Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease, and what are its key features?

A

Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative disease of the cerebral cortex and is the most common cause of dementia in the elderly, accounting for 75% of cases.

It primarily affects the elderly, with risk increasing with age.

Genetic factors such as the epsilon 4 allele of apolipoprotein E and mutations in presenilin 1 and 2 proteins are associated with increased risk.

In Alzheimer’s disease, the amyloid precursor protein (APP) is broken down into unprocessable products, leading to the accumulation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques in the brain.

These plaques disrupt neurotransmission, elicit inflammatory responses, and lead to hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, resulting in the formation of neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal dysfunction.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

80

Q

What are the clinical manifestations of Alzheimer’s disease as it progresses?

A

Alzheimer’s disease typically manifests with slow-onset memory loss, starting with short-term memory loss and progressing to long-term memory loss, along with progressive disorientation.

It also leads to impairment of higher intellectual functions such as judgment, abstract thinking, problem-solving, language, and visual-spatial function, often accompanied by mood and behavioral changes.

In later stages, patients may experience severe cortical dysfunction, leading to progressive disorientation, memory loss, and aphasia. Ultimately, patients become profoundly disabled, mute, and immobile.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

81

Q

What is the macroscopic appearance of the brain in Alzheimer’s disease during autopsy?

A

During autopsy, the brain in Alzheimer’s disease shows diffused cerebral atrophy, characterized by widening of the cerebral sulci and narrowing of gyri.

There is compensatory ventricular enlargement, known as hydrocephalus ex vacuo, which occurs due to atrophy of cerebral matter rather than increased cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

82

Q

Describe the histologic appearance of Alzheimer’s disease, focusing on key features such as neuritic plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

A

In Alzheimer’s disease, neuritic plaques are spherical masses primarily composed of amyloid fibrils and interwoven neuronal processes.

They can be found in various brain regions, including the hippocampus, amygdala, neocortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellar cortex.

Neurofibrillary tangles are basophilic fibrillary structures found in the cytoplasm of neurons.

They consist of abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau protein and are commonly observed in cortical neurons, especially in the entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, basal forebrain, and raphe nuclei.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

83

Q

What are the clinical features of Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration (FTLD)?

A

FTLD is characterized by progressive deterioration of language and changes in personality.

Unlike Alzheimer’s disease, in FTLD, behavior and language disorders often precede memory impairment.

These changes stem from the degeneration and atrophy of the frontal and temporal lobes, leading to a clinical syndrome commonly referred to as frontotemporal dementia.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

84

Q

Describe the morphology associated with Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration

A

FTLD-tau: Chứa protein tau, có cấu hình khác với các đám rối tau trong bệnh Alzheimer.

FTLD-TDP43: Chứa protein TDP-43, liên quan đến suy giảm nhận thức thùy trán.

The morphology of FTLD involves atrophy of the brain, primarily affecting the frontal and temporal lobes.

Different subgroups of FTLD are characterized by neuronal inclusions found in the affected regions.

In some cases, these inclusions contain the protein tau (FTLD-tau), which can have a configuration different from the tau-containing tangles observed in Alzheimer’s disease.

Another major form of FTLD involves aggregates containing the DNA/RNA-binding protein TDP-43 (FTLD-TDP43), which is associated with predominantly frontal lobe cognitive impairment.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

85

Q

What are the main clinical features of Lewy body dementia (LBD)?

A

Patients with Lewy body dementia typically present with fluctuating attention and cognition, visual hallucinations, and motor parkinsonian manifestations such as bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor.

Unlike Parkinson’s disease, where dementia typically appears in later stages, dementia manifests early in the course of LBD, often within the first year of diagnosis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

86

Q

Describe the histological findings associated with Lewy body dementia.

A

The prominent histological correlate of Lewy body dementia is the presence of Lewy bodies in neurons within the cortex and brainstem.

Lewy bodies are abnormal collections of alpha-synuclein protein within the cytoplasm of neurons.

Additionally, staining for α-synuclein reveals the presence of abnormal neurites containing aggregated protein, known as Lewy neurites.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

87

Q

T173 What is Parkinson’s disease (PD) characterized by?

A

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the primary loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. This results in dysfunction of the nigrostriatal pathway, which utilizes dopamine to regulate voluntary movement initiation.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

88

Q

What are the etiological factors associated with Parkinson’s disease?

A

The majority of Parkinson’s disease cases are sporadic with an unknown etiology, although aging is a significant risk factor. However, about 5-10% of patients have a monogenic form of PD, either autosomal dominant or recessive.

Mutations in genes such as α-synuclein (SNCA) and Parkin (PARK2) are associated with autosomal dominant and recessive forms, respectively.

Additionally, individuals with Gaucher disease (GD) or carrying GBA1 mutations have an increased risk of developing PD. Environmental factors like exposure to toxins or certain drugs can also induce Parkinson’s disease, such as MPTP, which selectively harms dopaminergic neurons.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

89

Q

Describe the pathomechanism of Parkinson’s disease

A

Parkinson’s disease primarily affects the dopamine-producing neurons of the substantia nigra (SN). The accumulation of α-synuclein protein aggregates is a key pathology in PD, leading to cellular toxicity.

This accumulation impairs the functioning of cellular organelles such as mitochondria, lysosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum, and disrupts microtubular transport.

Dopamine depletion in the striatum due to the degeneration of dopaminergic nigrostriatal pathway correlates with the clinical symptoms of rigidity, bradykinesia, and tremor at rest observed in PD.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

90

Q

Morphology of Parkinson’s Disease

A

  • Gross findings often include pallor of the substantia nigra and locus ceruleus due to the loss of pigmented, catecholaminergic neurons.
  • Lewy bodies, large aggregates of α-synuclein protein, are found in neuron bodies. They appear as round eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions with a dense core surrounded by a pale halo. Lewy neurites, fibrils made of insoluble polymers of α-synuclein, are deposited in neuronal processes and glial cells.
  • With disease progression, Lewy bodies and neurites appear in the cerebral cortex. Initially, subtle Lewy bodies and neurites are found in brain regions outside the substantia nigra, starting from the medulla and pons before involving the substantia nigra.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

91

Q

Clinical Features of Parkinson’s Disease

A

Progresses over 10 to 15 years, leading to severe motor slowing and near immobility.

Clinical features can be remembered by the acronym “TRAP”:Tremor: Pill-rolling tremor at rest that disappears with movement.

Rigidity: Cogwheel rigidity in the extremities.

Akinesia/Bradykinesia: Slowing of voluntary movement.

Postural Instability and Shuffling Gait.

Death often results from intercurrent infections or trauma due to frequent falls caused by postural instability.

Dementia typically appears in the late stages of the disease.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

92

Q

Causes of Parkinsonism

A

Lewy body dementia (LBD) occurs when dementia arises within 1 year of the onset of motor symptoms.

Idiopathic Parkinson’s disease (paralysis agitans) is the most common cause.

Other causes include ischemia of the basal ganglia, head trauma (e.g., boxers), and Shy-Drager syndrome, which presents with idiopathic parkinsonism associated with hypotension and other autonomic symptoms.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

93

Q

What is Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?

A

ALS is a fatal degenerative disorder of upper and lower motor neurons characterized by progressive muscle weakness, atrophy, and eventual paralysis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

94

Q

Who does ALS primarily affect?

A

ALS affects men more than women, typically occurring in individuals over 50 years old.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

95

Q

What are the typical initial symptoms of ALS?

A

ALS usually begins with subtle asymmetric distal extremity weakness.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

96

Q

What is the usual cause of death in ALS patients?

A

The usual cause of death in ALS patients is respiratory failure due to involvement of the respiratory muscles.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

97

Q

What is the pathogenesis of ALS?

A

The pathogenesis of ALS involves degeneration and loss of motor neurons in the anterior horns of the spinal cord, affecting both upper and lower motor neurons.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

98

Q

What are some genetic factors associated with ALS?

A

Mutations in genes such as SOD-1, TDP-43, FUS, and C9ORF72 have been associated with ALS, either in familial cases or sporadic cases.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

99

Q

What are some common clinical features of ALS?

A

Common clinical features of ALS include muscle weakness, atrophy, fasciculations, spasticity, hyperactive tendon reflexes, and eventually respiratory paralysis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

100

Q

What is the typical prognosis for ALS patients?

A

ALS is relentlessly progressive, and the majority of patients die within 2-3 years from the onset of symptoms, usually from respiratory paralysis.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

101

Q

What are some morphological changes seen in ALS?

A

Morphological changes in ALS include thinning and gray discoloration of anterior roots of the spinal cord, loss of anterior horn cells, and neurogenic atrophy of skeletal muscles.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

102

Q

What is Huntington’s disease (HD)?

A

Huntington’s disease is a fatal autosomal dominant neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by degeneration of the striatum (caudate and putamen), involuntary jerky movements, and behavioral changes.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

103

Q

What is the pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease?

A

Huntington’s disease is caused by CAG trinucleotide repeat expansions in a gene located on chromosome 4 that encodes the protein huntingtin. Larger numbers of repeats result in earlier-onset disease. Expanded huntingtin protein forms aggregates (inclusions) in the nuclei and dendrites of affected neurons, leading to neurodegeneration.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

104

Q

What are some morphological changes seen in Huntington’s disease?

A

Teo: Nhân đuôi và nhân bèo sẫm bị teo.

Giãn não thất: Sừng trước của não thất bên bị giãn.

Bao thể trong nhân: Chứa các tập hợp protein huntingtin ubiquitin hóa.

Morphological changes in Huntington’s disease include atrophy of the caudate nucleus and putamen, dilatation of the anterior horns of the lateral ventricles, and intranuclear inclusions containing aggregates of ubiquitinated huntingtin protein.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

105

Q

What are the clinical presentations of Huntington’s disease?

A

Huntington’s disease presents with chorea (abnormal involuntary movements), early cognitive symptoms such as forgetfulness, later progressing to severe dementia, and behavioral changes including depression. The disease is progressive, with death typically occurring after a course of about 15 years.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

106

Q

T174 What are cerebrovascular diseases, and what is their significance?

A

Cerebrovascular diseases are brain disorders caused by pathologic processes involving blood vessels. They are a major cause of death in the developed world.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

107

Q

What are the two main mechanisms by which cerebrovascular diseases cause damage to the brain?

A

Cerebrovascular diseases primarily cause damage to the brain through ischemia (85% of cases) or hemorrhage (15% of cases).

Ischemia results from thrombotic or embolic occlusion of vessels, while hemorrhage occurs due to vascular rupture.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

108

Q

What is the clinical term used for symptoms arising from cerebrovascular problems?

A

“Stroke” is the clinical term used for symptoms that arise from cerebrovascular problems, particularly when symptoms begin acutely.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

109

Q

What are the three main types of cerebrovascular pathologies?

A

The three main types of cerebrovascular pathologies are thrombotic occlusion of vessels, embolic occlusion of vessels, and vascular rupture.

These pathologies can lead to ischemic injury, infarction, or hemorrhage in the brain, depending on the mechanism involved.

Ba loại bệnh lý mạch máu não chính:Tắc mạch do huyết khốiTắc mạch do thuyên tắcVỡ mạch máuHậu quả:Tổn thương thiếu máu cục bộNhồi máuXuất huyết trong não

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

110

Q

What is ischemic encephalopathy, and what is its underlying cause?

A

Ischemic encephalopathy is a condition characterized by widespread ischemic or hypoxic injury to the brain due to inadequate blood supply.

It occurs when the brain tissue does not receive sufficient glucose and oxygen from the blood, leading to functional hypoxia or ischemia.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

111

Q

What are the clinical outcomes associated with global cerebral ischemia?

A

Thiếu máu não toàn cầu: Kết quả lâm sàng phụ thuộc vào mức độ và thời gian tổn thương.

Tình huống nhẹ: Lú lẫn tạm thời, hồi phục hoàn toàn

.Tình huống trung bình: Nhồi máu ở vùng ranh giới (watershed areas).

The clinical outcomes of global cerebral ischemia vary depending on the severity and duration of the insult. In mild situations, patients may experience a transient confusional state with usually full recovery.

In moderate situations, infarcts may occur in regions fed by the very end of the circulation, known as watershed areas.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

112

Q

What factors contribute to ischemia in the brain?

A

Ischemia in the brain can result from various factors, including low perfusion (such as due to atherosclerosis), acute decreases in blood flow (e.g., cardiogenic shock), chronic hypoxia (e.g., anemia), or repeated episodes of hypoglycemia.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

113

Q

What are the main reasons for global cerebral ischemia?

A

The main reasons for global cerebral ischemia include severe systemic hypotension (systolic pressures of less than 50 mmHg) due to conditions such as cardiac arrest, shock, and severe hypotension.

Nguyên nhân chính của thiếu máu não toàn cầu:Hạ huyết áp hệ thống nghiêm trọng (huyết áp tâm thu dưới 50 mmHg).

Do ngừng tim, sốc, và hạ huyết áp nghiêm trọng.

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

114

Q

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (7)

A

How well did you know this?

1

Not at all

2

3

4

5

Perfectly

115

Q

What are the clinical outcomes associated with severe global cerebral ischemia?

A

Thiếu máu não toàn cầu nghiêm trọng:

Hậu quả: Chết tế bào thần kinh lan rộng, hoại tử lan tỏa.Trạng thái thực vật kéo dài:

Một số bệnh nhân có thể sống sót nhưng rơi vào trạng thái này.

Chết não: Bệnh nhân có thể đáp ứng tiêu chí lâm sàng của chết não với tổn thương vỏ não và thân não, mất phản xạ và không có hoạt động hô hấp.

In severe situations of global cerebral ischemia, widespread neuronal death occurs regardless of regional sensitivity, leading to diffuse necrosis.

Patients who survive may remain in a persistent vegetative state.

Others may meet the clinical criteria for “brain death,” characterized by evidence of diffuse cortical injury and brain stem damage, including absent reflexes and respiratory drive.

116

Q

What are the morphological characteristics of severe global cerebral ischemia?

A

Morphological changes associated with severe global cerebral ischemia include a swollen brain with wide gyri and narrow sulci, resulting in poor demarcation between gray and white matter.

Histopathological changes accompanying irreversible injury can be categorized into three stages: early changes (12-24 hours) characterized by acute neuronal changes (red neurons),

subacute changes (24 hours-2 weeks) involving tissue necrosis, macrophage influx, vascular proliferation, and reactive gliosis, and repair (after 2 weeks) characterized by removal of necrotic tissue, loss of organized CNS structure, and gliosis.

In the cerebral cortex, neuronal loss and gliosis produce uneven destruction of the neocortex.

117

Q

What is vascular dementia, and what are its common causes?

A

Sa sút trí tuệ mạch máu: Nguyên nhân phổ biến thứ hai gây sa sút trí tuệ, do bệnh mạch máu não.

Nguyên nhân: Tăng huyết áp và xơ vữa động mạch.

Tổn thương: Thiếu máu cục bộ toàn cầu mức độ vừa phải ở vỏ não và vùng hippocampus.

Điều trị: Kiểm soát tăng huyết áp và xơ vữa động mạch để cải thiện tiên lượng.

Vascular dementia is the second most common cause of dementia, resulting from cerebrovascular disease.

Hypertension and atherosclerosis are common causes, leading to moderate global ischemic damage to the cortex and hippocampus, resulting in dementia.

Treatment aimed at managing hypertension and atherosclerosis can improve prognosis for vascular dementia.

118

Q

What is cerebral infarction, and what are its common causes?

A

Cerebral infarction is focal brain necrosis caused by complete and prolonged ischemia affecting all tissue elements, including neurons, glia, and vessels. The majority of thrombotic occlusions leading to cerebral infarctions are due to atherosclerosis, typically occurring at sites such as the carotid bifurcation, middle cerebral artery, and basilar artery.

119

Q

What are the two types of cerebral infarctions, and how do they differ?

A

Nhồi máu não: Có thể không chảy máu hoặc chảy máu.

Nhồi máu không chảy máu:

Nguyên nhân: Vỡ mảng xơ vữa (đột quỵ do huyết khối).
Đặc điểm: Vùng nhồi máu nhợt nhạt ở ngoại vi vỏ não.

Nhồi máu chảy máu:

Nguyên nhân: Tái tưới máu của mô thiếu máu cục bộ (liên quan đến thuyên tắc).
Đặc điểm: Vùng nhồi máu chảy máu ở ngoại vi vỏ não.

Cerebral infarctions can be non-hemorrhagic or hemorrhagic.

Non-hemorrhagic infarctions, such as thrombotic strokes, result from the rupture of an atherosclerotic plaque and typically produce a pale infarct at the periphery of the cortex.

Hemorrhagic infarctions occur due to reperfusion of ischemic tissue, often associated with embolism, and result in a hemorrhagic infarct at the periphery of the cortex.

120

Q

What is lacunar stroke, and what is its underlying cause?

A

Lacunar stroke occurs as a result of hyaline arteriolosclerosis, a complication of hypertension. It most commonly involves lenticulostriate vessels, leading to small cystic areas of infarction.

Đột quỵ lỗ khuyết xảy ra do hiện tượng xơ cứng tiểu động mạch hyaline, một biến chứng của tăng huyết áp. Nó thường liên quan đến các mạch lenticulostriate, dẫn đến các vùng nhồi máu nhỏ có dạng nang.

121

Q

Describe the macroscopic and microscopic morphology of cerebral infarction.

A

Đại thể:

6-12 giờ đầu: Nhồi máu não có thể không phát hiện được

.48-72 giờ: Vùng nhồi máu mềm và phân hủy, kèm theo phù nề và thoát vị.

Vài tuần đến vài tháng: Hình thành các nang

.Vi thể:12 giờ: Xuất hiện các thay đổi tế bào thần kinh do thiếu máu cục bộ (tế bào thần kinh đỏ).

48 giờ: Bạch cầu trung tính xâm nhập vào vùng nhồi máu.

Hai tuần tiếp theo: Đại thực bào xâm nhập.

Tế bào sao: To ra, phân chia và phát triển mạng lưới sợi đệm, hình thành khoang chứa đầy dịch bao quanh bởi mô đệm đệm.

Macroscopically, cerebral infarctions may not be detectable for 6-12 hours, but after 48-72 hours, there is softening and disintegration of the infarcted region, often accompanied by edema and herniation.

Over weeks to months, cyst formation may occur.

Microscopically, ischemic neuronal changes, such as red neurons, are seen after about 12 hours.

Neutrophils initially infiltrate the infarct around 48 hours, followed by macrophages over the next two weeks.

Astrocytes at the edge of the lesion enlarge, divide, and send out a network of glial cell processes, resulting in the formation of a fluid-filled cystic space surrounded by gliosis.

This process is typically completed in approximately 2 months, and there is no scar formation.

122

Q

What are the various locations within the skull where intracranial hemorrhage can occur?

A

Intracranial hemorrhage can occur in several locations, including epidural hematoma (usually associated with trauma), subdural hematoma, subarachnoid hematoma (commonly seen with aneurysms), intracerebral (parenchymal) hemorrhage (often linked to hypertension), and intraventricular hemorrhage.

123

Q

What is the most common cause of spontaneous intraparenchymal hemorrhages, and where do they typically occur?

A

Spontaneous intraparenchymal hemorrhages most commonly occur due to the rupture of a small intraparenchymal vessel.

Hypertension is the most common underlying cause, and these hemorrhages typically occur in the basal ganglia, thalamus, pons, and cerebellum.

124

Q

Describe the morphology of primary brain parenchymal hemorrhage.

A

Một viền nâu bao quanh một khoang phát triển, giống như hoại tử của tế bào thần kinh, tương tự như nhồi máu chảy máu.

Primary brain parenchymal hemorrhages result in extravasated blood compressing brain parenchyma.

With time, a brown rim surrounding a cavity develops, resembling neurons’ necrosis, similar to hemorrhagic infarction.

Cerebral amyloid angiopathy, characterized by amyloid deposition in the blood vessel walls of medium to small blood vessels, can also lead to primary brain parenchymal hemorrhage, often manifesting as lobar hemorrhage.

Trauma can also be a cause of intracerebral hemorrhage.

125

Q

What is an epidural hematoma, and what is its classic cause?

A

An epidural hematoma is a collection of blood between the dura mater and the skull.

It is classically caused by a fracture of the temporal bone with rupture of the middle meningeal artery.

This bleeding separates the dura from the skull, leading to the formation of a lens-shaped lesion on CT scans.

126

Q

What is a subdural hematoma, and what is its typical mechanism of formation?

A

A subdural hematoma is a collection of blood underneath the dura mater.

It typically results from traumatically severed “bridging veins” that connect superficial cerebral veins and the dural venous sinuses.

The bleeding from these veins may stop on its own when the pressure outside the veins exceeds the pressure inside the vascular lumen.

The incidence of subdural hematomas increases in the elderly due to age-related cerebral atrophy, which stretches the veins.

127

Q

What is a subarachnoid hemorrhage, and what is its most common cause?

A

A subarachnoid hemorrhage is bleeding into the subarachnoid space.

It is most frequently caused by the rupture of a berry aneurysm, accounting for about 85% of cases. Other causes include arteriovenous malformations and an anticoagulated state.

128

Q

What are saccular aneurysms, and where are they commonly found?

A

Saccular aneurysms, also known as berry aneurysms, are thin-walled saccular outpouchings that lack a media layer, increasing the risk of rupture.

They are most frequently located in the anterior circle of Willis at branch points of the anterior communicating artery.

Saccular aneurysms are associated with conditions such as Marfan syndrome and autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.

129

Q

T175 What are the most common causes of subarachnoid hemorrhage?

A

The most common causes of subarachnoid hemorrhage are berry aneurysms and vascular malformations.

130

Q

Berry aneurysms

A

These small saccular aneurysms are typically found in and around the
circle of Willis at the base of the brain.

They develop at the site of arterial branching
corresponding to the congenital weakest part of the vessels. The rupture of these aneurysms
leads to a usually fatal subarachnoid and/or intraparenchymal/intraventricular hemorrhage.

131

Q

Saccular (berry) aneurysm

A

No media in the saccular outpouching.

 Mainly (90%) in anterior circulation near major arterial branch points.

 High risk in patient with autosomal dominant polycytic diseas (ADPCD).

 Although they are sometimes congenital they are not present at birth but develop over
time.

 COMPLICATIONS: due to healing and fibrosis process of the meninges, there is a risk
for CSF flow obstruction  hydrocephalus.

 Morphology of saccular aneurysm: unruptured  thin outpouch of an artery, with lack of
media beyond the neck.

 Rupture- mainly happen in the apex of the sac  releasing blood into the subarachnoid
space or the substance of the brain or both.

 At times, rather than rupturing, a saccular aneurysm enlarges to form a mass that
compresses cranial nerves and produces palsies on parenchymal structures and induces
neurologic symptoms.

Classically, for example, a posterior communicating artery
aneurysm compresses the third cranial nerve, leading to an isolated oculomotor nerve
palsy with a dilated pupil

132

Q

Atherosclerotic aneurysms

A

These aneurysms may involve the extraparenchymal or
intracerebral arteries. Most often, they are asymptomatic and rarely rupture.

Additional : also another important anneurysm : Hypertensive microaneurysms

133

Q

What are the four types of vascular malformations?

A

Arteriovenous malformation (AVM’S)

Cavernous malformation.

Capillary telangiectasia

Venous angiomas.

134

Q

What is the most common type of vascular malformation?

A

Arteriovenous malformation (AVM’S)

135

Q

What complications are associated with AVMs?

A

AVMs have high blood flow, often pulsate, and may cause mixed parenchymal/subarachnoidal bleeding and seizures. They can lead to intracerebral or subarachnoid hemorrhage, making them the most dangerous type of vascular malformation.

Dị dạng động tĩnh mạch (AVMs) có lưu lượng máu cao, thường đập theo nhịp, và có thể gây chảy máu nhu mô/màng nhện hỗn hợp và co giật. Chúng có thể dẫn đến xuất huyết trong não hoặc dưới nhện, khiến chúng trở thành loại dị dạng mạch máu nguy hiểm nhất.

136

Q

What is the typical age range for AVM manifestation?

A

They typically manifest between the ages of 10 and 30 years.

137

Q

What is the pathophysiological association of multiple AVMs?

A

Multiple AVMs can be seen in the setting of hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, an autosomal dominant condition often associated with the TGF pathway.

Nhiều dị dạng động tĩnh mạch (AVMs) có thể được thấy trong bối cảnh của bệnh giãn mao mạch xuất huyết di truyền (hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia), một tình trạng di truyền trội trên nhiễm sắc thể thường, thường liên quan đến con đường TGF.

138

Q

Describe the macroscopic and microscopic morphology of AVMs.

A

Đại thể: Mạch máu dưới màng nhện có hình dạng rối rắm giống như con giun.

Vi thể: Mạch máu giãn nở được ngăn cách bởi mô thần kinh đệm.

Macroscopically, subarachnoid vessels resemble a tangled network of wormlike vascular channels. Microscopically, enlarged blood vessels are separated by gliotic tissue.

139

Q

What characterizes cavernous malformations?

A

Cavernous malformations are distended, loosely organized vascular channels with thin collagenized walls, occurring mostly in the cerebellum, pons, and subcortical regions.

140

Q

What are capillary telangiectasias?

A

Capillary telangiectasias are microscopic foci of dilated thin-walled vascular channels separated by relatively normal brain parenchyma, mostly occurring in the pons.

141

Q

What are venous angiomas?

A

Venous angiomas (varices) consist of aggregates of ectatic venous channels.

142

Q

T176 What are the three main types of traumatic brain injury?

A

Cerebral contusion

Cerebral laceration

Concussion

143

Q

What is a cerebral contusion?

A

A cerebral contusion is a bruise of the brain tissue caused by rapid tissue displacement, disruption of vascular channels, and subsequent hemorrhages, tissue injuries, and edema.

144

Q

Which part of the brain is most commonly damaged in cerebral contusions?

A

The crests of the gyri, which are closest to the skull, are the parts of the brain most commonly damaged in traumatic injury.

145

Q

What distinguishes cerebral lacerations from contusions?

A

Cerebral lacerations occur when the tissue of the brain is mechanically cut or torn, causing tearing of the pia-arachnoid membranes over the site of injury, whereas this tearing does not occur in contusions.

146

Q

What is the morphology of cerebral contusions?

A

Macroscopically, contusions have a wedge-shaped appearance, with the widest aspect closest to the point of impact.

Microscopically, there are neuronal changes, including nuclear pyknosis, cytoplasmic eosinophilia, and cellular disintegration, along with inflammatory cells such as neutrophils and macrophages.

147

Q

What distinguishes traumatic brain injury from ischemic lesions?

A

In traumatic brain injury, the superficial layers of the cortex are mostly affected, whereas in ischemic lesions, superficial layers of the cortex may be preserved.

148

Q

What is a concussion?

A

A concussion is the most common type of traumatic brain injury characterized by reversible altered consciousness from head injury in the absence of contusion.

It involves transient neurologic dysfunction, including loss of consciousness, temporary respiratory arrest, and loss of reflexes.

149

Q

What are the characteristics of concussion?

A

Concussion is characterized by transient neurologic dysfunction, including loss of consciousness, temporary respiratory arrest, and loss of reflexes. Neurologic recovery is complete, but amnesia for the event may persist.

150

Q

What is an epidural hematoma?

A

An epidural hematoma is a collection of blood between the dura mater and the skull.

151

Q

What is the common cause of epidural hematoma?

A

Epidural hematoma commonly occurs due to a fracture of the temporal bone with rupture of the middle meningeal artery.

152

Q

How does an epidural hematoma appear on a CT scan?

A

An epidural hematoma appears as a lens-shaped lesion on CT scans, resulting from compression of the brain surface.

153

Q

What are the clinical manifestations of epidural hematoma?

A

  • Lucid intervals may precede neurological signs.
  • Herniation is a lethal complication.

154

Q

Why is prompt management necessary for epidural hematoma?

A

Epidural hematoma may expand rapidly, leading to compression of the brain and constituting a neurosurgical emergency.

Prompt drainage and repair are necessary to prevent death.

155

Q

What is a subdural hematoma?

A

A subdural hematoma is a collection of blood underneath the dura mater but on top of the arachnoid membrane.

156

Q

What are the common causes of subdural hematoma?

A

Subdural hematoma is commonly caused by tearing of bridging veins between the dura and arachnoid. It can occur due to trauma or in patients with atrophied brains where the bridging veins are stretched.

157

Q

What are the clinical manifestations of subdural hematoma?

A

Subdural hematoma presents with progressive neurological signs. Herniation is a lethal complication.

158

Q

How does subdural hematoma appear on imaging?

A

On imaging, subdural hematoma appears as blood collected on the brain surface contour without entering the sulci. The brain may appear flattened, and the arachnoid membrane is clear.

159

Q

Why is prompt management necessary for subdural hematoma?

A

Prompt management is necessary for subdural hematoma to prevent the progression of neurological signs and to avoid lethal complications like herniation.

160

Q

T177 What are the unique features of brain tumors compared to other malignancies?

A

Brain tumors do not have detectable premalignant or in situ stages like carcinomas.

Even low-grade lesions may infiltrate large regions of the brain, leading to serious clinical deficits.

Most highly malignant gliomas rarely spread outside the CNS.

Metastatic brain tumors are commonly found at the grey-white junction and present as multiple, well-circ*mscribed lesions.

161

Q

What are the major types of glial tumors?

A

The major types of glial tumors are astrocytomas, oligodendrogliomas, and ependymomas.

162

Q

What is a diffuse astrocytoma?

A

Diffuse astrocytoma is the most common adult glioma, found in the cerebral hemispheres.

It is graded into well-differentiated astrocytoma (grade II), anaplastic astrocytoma (grade III), and glioblastoma (grade IV), with increasingly grim prognosis as the grade increases.

163

Q

What mutations are associated with astrocytomas, particularly glioblastomas?

A

Glioblastomas are associated with loss-of-function mutations in p53 and Rb, as well as gain-of-function mutations in the oncogenic PI3K pathways.

164

Q

Describe the morphology of astrocytomas.

A

Macroscopically, lower-grade astrocytomas create a gray tumor mass resembling expanded white matter, while glioblastomas appear as necrotic, hemorrhagic, infiltrating masses.

Microscopically, well-differentiated astrocytomas show mild nuclear pleomorphism and GFAP-positive astrocytic cell processes.

Anaplastic astrocytomas are more densely cellular with greater nuclear pleomorphism and mitotic figures.

Glioblastomas exhibit necrotic foci, vascular endothelial proliferation, and pseudopalisading nuclei around necrosis.

Đại thể:
- Astrocytomas cấp thấp (Lower-grade astrocytomas): Tạo ra khối u màu xám giống như phần chất trắng mở rộng.
- Glioblastomas: Xuất hiện dưới dạng khối u hoại tử, chảy máu, và xâm lấn.

Vi thể:
- Astrocytomas phân biệt tốt (Well-differentiated astrocytomas): Cho thấy sự đa hình nhẹ của nhân và các tế bào đệm dương tính với GFAP.
- Astrocytomas không biệt hóa (Anaplastic astrocytomas): Tế bào dày đặc hơn, có sự đa hình nhân lớn hơn và có các hình thái phân bào.
- Glioblastomas: Có các ổ hoại tử, tăng sinh nội mô mạch máu, và nhân giả xếp dọc quanh vùng hoại tử.

165

Q

What is a pilocytic astrocytoma?

A

Pilocytic astrocytoma is a relatively benign tumor typically affecting children and young adults.

It is often located in the cerebellum, 3rd ventricle, optic pathway, and spinal cord, and is characterized by a cyst with a mural nodule.

Microscopically, the tumor is composed of bipolar cells with long, thin, hair-like processes that are GFAP-positive. Rosenthal fibers, eosinophilic granular bodies, are also present.

  • Khối u được cấu tạo từ các tế bào hai cực với các nhánh dài, mỏng, giống như sợi tóc và dương tính với GFAP.
  • Sợi Rosenthal và các thể hạt ái toan cũng có mặt.

166

Q

What is oligodendroglioma?

A

Oligodendroglioma is a malignant tumor of the oligodendrocytes, primarily affecting adults, and may present with seizures, particularly due to frontal lobe involvement.

167

Q

What is the prognosis of oligodendrogliomas?

A

Oligodendrogliomas have a relatively good prognosis, even with high grade. They are classified into well-differentiated (WHO grade II) and anaplastic (WHO grade III) subtypes, with the latter being more aggressive.

168

Q

What genetic abnormalities are associated with oligodendrogliomas?

A

Oligodendrogliomas are associated with chromosomal deletion of 1p and 19q.

169

Q

Describe the morphology of oligodendrogliomas.

A

Macroscopically, oligodendrogliomas appear as calcified tumors in the white matter, predominantly found in the cerebral hemispheres, particularly in the frontal or temporal lobes.

Microscopically, they exhibit a “fried egg” appearance, with sheets of neoplastic cells characterized by spherical nuclei surrounded by a clear halo cytoplasm. Blood vessels may be observed in the background.

Đại thể:
- Oligodendrogliomas: Xuất hiện như các khối u bị vôi hóa trong chất trắng, chủ yếu được tìm thấy ở các bán cầu đại não, đặc biệt là ở thùy trán hoặc thùy thái dương.

Vi thể:
- Oligodendrogliomas: Có hình ảnh “trứng ốp la,” với các tấm tế bào tân sinh có nhân hình cầu bao quanh bởi bào tương trong suốt. Có thể quan sát thấy các mạch máu trong nền.

170

Q

What is the typical location for ependymomas to arise?

A

Ependymomas most often arise adjacent to the ependymal-lined ventricular system, including the central canal of the spinal cord.

171

Q

In which population is ependymoma most commonly found?

A

In adults, ependymomas are frequently located in the spinal cord, whereas in children, they most commonly arise in the fourth ventricle. Children may present with hydrocephalus due to tumor growth obstructing the ventricular space.

172

Q

Describe the morphology of ependymomas.

A

Ependymomas typically present as solid or papillary masses extending from the ventricular floor.

The tumor cells have round nuclei with abundant granular chromatin. They may form round structures called rosettes, as well as perivascular pseudorosettes, where tumor cells surround vessels with intervening zones containing thin ependymal processes.

Anaplastic ependymomas exhibit increased cell density, high mitotic rates, necrosis, and less evident ependymal differentiation.

Ependymomas: Khối u đặc hoặc nhú từ sàn não thất, tế bào có nhân tròn và nhiễm sắc thể hạt dồi dào, hình thành hoa thị và hoa thị giả quanh mạch máu.Ependymomas không biệt hóa (Anaplastic ependymomas): Mật độ tế bào cao, tỷ lệ phân bào cao, hoại tử, biệt hóa màng não ít rõ ràng.

173

Q

What is the typical location for central neurocytomas to form?

A

Central neurocytomas typically form adjacent to the ventricular system, most commonly in the lateral or third ventricles, often arising from the neuronal cells of the septum pellucidum

U tế bào thần kinh trung ương (Central neurocytomas) thường hình thành gần hệ thống não thất, phổ biến nhất là ở não thất bên hoặc não thất ba, thường phát sinh từ các tế bào thần kinh của vách trong suốt (septum pellucidum).

174

Q

Describe the characteristics of gangliogliomas.

A

Gangliogliomas are rare, slow-growing benign tumors of the central nervous system, most frequently found in the temporal lobes of children and young adults.

They contain a mixture of glial elements, usually a low-grade astrocytoma, and mature-appearing neurons. While most of these tumors grow slowly, the glial component may occasionally become anaplastic, leading to rapid disease progression.

Gangliogliomas là các khối u lành tính hiếm gặp, phát triển chậm trong hệ thần kinh trung ương, thường thấy nhất ở thùy thái dương của trẻ em và thanh thiếu niên. Các khối u này chứa hỗn hợp các thành phần đệm (thường là một dạng astrocytoma cấp thấp) và các tế bào thần kinh trưởng thành. Mặc dù hầu hết các khối u này phát triển chậm, thành phần đệm có thể đôi khi trở nên không biệt hóa (anaplastic), dẫn đến sự tiến triển nhanh của bệnh.

175

Q

What are the typical features of dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors (DNTs)?

A

Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors (DNTs) are benign mixed glioneuronal neoplasms commonly seen in children and young adults.

They often present as seizure disorders and are typically located in the superficial temporal lobe.

DNTs consist of small round neuronal cells arranged in columns around central cores of processes. These tumors form multiple discrete intracortical nodules with a myxoid background, and they contain well-differentiated “floating” neurons within pools of mucopolysaccharide-rich myxoid fluid.

Dysembryoplastic neuroepithelial tumors (DNTs) là các khối u lành tính, thường gặp ở trẻ em và thanh thiếu niên, biểu hiện bằng các cơn co giật và thường nằm ở thùy thái dương. Chúng có cấu trúc đặc trưng gồm các tế bào thần kinh nhỏ, tròn, sắp xếp xung quanh các lõi trung tâm, tạo thành các nốt nội vỏ với nền nhầy, và chứa các tế bào thần kinh “trôi nổi” trong các hồ chứa chất nhầy.

176

Q

What is the origin of medulloblastoma?

A

Medulloblastoma is derived from granular cells of the cerebellum and is part of the group of embryonal tumors, all of which originate from neuroectodermal tissue with primitive small round neoplastic cells.

177

Q

Who is predominantly affected by medulloblastoma?

A

Medulloblastoma predominantly arises in children.

178

Q

What is the typical location of medulloblastoma?

A

Medulloblastoma exclusively arises in the cerebellum.

179

Q

How does medulloblastoma typically react to radiation therapy?

A

Medulloblastoma is very malignant but also tends to react well to radiation therapy.

180

Q

Describe the macroscopic and microscopic morphology of medulloblastoma.

A

Macroscopically, medulloblastoma in children is typically located in the midline, while in adults, it is more lateral on the surface of the folia cerebellum as a gray friable mass.

Microscopically, it consists of small, round blue cells, with Homer-Wright rosettes sometimes present.

Tế bào màu xanh: Chỉ các tế bào u nhỏ, tròn, đậm màu khi nhuộm H&E, đặc trưng cho nhiều loại u thần kinh đệm và u nguyên bào.

Hoa thị Homer-Wright: Các cấu trúc vòng tròn đặc trưng trong vi thể, biểu thị sự tổ chức đặc biệt của các tế bào u xung quanh một trung tâm sợi thần kinh.

181

Q

What is the most common type of primary central nervous system lymphoma?

A

Primary central nervous system lymphoma mostly occurs as diffuse large B cell lymphomas.

182

Q

Who is at a higher risk of developing primary CNS lymphoma?

A

Primary CNS lymphoma is the most common CNS neoplasm in immunosuppressed persons, in whom the tumors are nearly always positive for the oncogenic Epstein-Barr virus.

183

Q

How does primary brain lymphoma typically respond to chemotherapy?

A

Primary brain lymphoma is an aggressive disease with a relatively poor response to chemotherapy.

184

Q

What distinguishes primary brain lymphomas from lymphomas originating outside the CNS?

A

Primary brain lymphomas often involve deep gray structures, as well as the white matter and the cortex, whereas lymphomas originating outside the CNS rarely spread to the brain parenchyma; when it happens, the tumor usually also involves the CSF or the meninges.

185

Q

Where do primary brain germ cell tumors most commonly occur?

A

Primary brain germ cell tumors occur along the midline, most commonly in the pineal and suprasellar regions. They are tumors of the young, with 90% occurring during the first 2 decades of life.

Các u tế bào mầm nguyên phát trong não thường xuất hiện dọc theo đường giữa, phổ biến nhất là ở vùng tùng và vùng trên yên. Đây là các khối u gặp ở người trẻ, với 90% xảy ra trong hai thập kỷ đầu đời.

186

Q

T178 What is the predominant cell type involved in meningiomas?

A

Meningiomas predominantly consist of meningioepithelial cells of the arachnoid membrane.

187

Q

Who is most commonly affected by meningiomas?

A

Meningiomas are most common in adults and occur more frequently in females. It’s notable that the tumor expresses estrogen receptors.

188

Q

What genetic mutation is associated with about half of meningiomas not associated with neurofibromatosis type 2 (NF2)?

A

About half of meningiomas not associated with NF2 have acquired loss-of-function mutations in the NF2 tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 22.

189

Q

How do meningiomas typically appear on imaging?

A

Meningiomas typically appear as round masses attached to the dura on imaging studies.

Meningiomas thường xuất hiện dưới dạng các khối tròn gắn liền với màng cứng trên các hình ảnh chẩn đoán.

190

Q

What histological features characterize meningiomas?

A

Meningiomas exhibit syncytial-whorled clusters of cells without visible cell membranes. They may also contain psammoma bodies, which are foci of dystrophic calcification.

Additionally, they can have a fibroblastic component with elongated cells and abundant collagen deposition.

Meningiomas can be graded into three categories: well-differentiated benign tumors (WHO grade I), atypical tumors (WHO grade II), and anaplastic tumors (WHO grade III).

Meningiomas: Có cụm tế bào kiểu syncytial-whorled, không có màng tế bào rõ ràng, có thể chứa thể psammoma và thành phần sợi.Phân loại:WHO độ I: U lành tính phân biệt tốt.WHO độ II: U không điển hình.WHO độ III: U không biệt hóa.

191

Q

What are the most common primary sites of metastatic tumors to the brain?

A

The most common primary sites of metastatic tumors to the brain are lung, breast, skin (melanoma), kidney, and gastrointestinal tract.

192

Q

What is the typical appearance of metastatic lesions in the brain on imaging studies?

A

Metastatic lesions in the brain typically form sharply demarcated masses, often at the gray-white junction, and elicit edema. The boundary between tumor and brain parenchyma is sharp, with surrounding reactive gliosis.

Các tổn thương di căn trong não thường hình thành các khối rõ ràng, thường nằm ở ranh giới giữa chất xám và chất trắng, và gây phù nề. Ranh giới giữa khối u và nhu mô não rất rõ ràng, với vùng xung quanh có phản ứng tăng sinh tế bào đệm.

193

Q

What is a characteristic manifestation of paraneoplastic syndrome associated with intracranial metastases?

A

Paraneoplastic syndrome associated with intracranial metastases can manifest as various neurological symptoms, such as subacute cerebellar degeneration (ataxia), limbic encephalitis (sub-acute dementia), subacute sensory neuropathy (altered pain sensation), and rapid-onset psychosis, catatonia, epilepsy, and coma (associated with ovarian teratoma and antibodies against NMDA receptor).

Hội chứng cận ung thư liên quan đến di căn nội sọ có thể biểu hiện dưới dạng các triệu chứng thần kinh khác nhau, như thoái hóa tiểu não bán cấp (mất điều hòa), viêm não viền (sa sút trí tuệ bán cấp), bệnh thần kinh cảm giác bán cấp (thay đổi cảm giác đau), và các triệu chứng tâm thần kinh khởi phát nhanh như loạn thần, catatonia, động kinh, và hôn mê (liên quan đến u quái buồng trứng và kháng thể chống lại thụ thể NMDA).

  • Hội chứng cận ung thư do di căn não có thể gây ra các triệu chứng thần kinh như:
    • Thoái hóa tiểu não bán cấp (mất điều hòa)
    • Viêm não viền (sa sút trí tuệ bán cấp)
    • Bệnh thần kinh cảm giác bán cấp (thay đổi cảm giác đau)
    • Tâm thần kinh khởi phát nhanh như loạn thần, catatonia, động kinh, và hôn mê
  • Liên quan đến: U quái buồng trứng và kháng thể chống lại thụ thể NMDA.

194

Q

How do metastatic tumors typically affect the brain parenchyma?

A

Metastatic tumors in the brain typically form well-demarcated masses that elicit edema and often occur at the gray-white junction. They have a sharp boundary with surrounding reactive gliosis.

195

Q

What role do antibodies against tumor antigens play in paraneoplastic syndrome?

A

In paraneoplastic syndrome, antibodies against tumor antigens can cause various neurological symptoms by affecting the nervous system, sometimes even preceding the clinical recognition of the malignant neoplasm.

196

Q

T179 What is myelin and how is it formed in the central nervous system (CNS)?

A

Myelin is an electrical insulator that allows rapid propagation of neural impulses. It consists of multiple layers of specialized plasma membranes that are assembled by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS).

197

Q

Where are myelinated axons most dominant, and what is the primary consequence of diseases affecting myelin?

A

Myelinated axons are most dominant in the white matter of the brain. Diseases affecting myelin primarily result in white matter disorders.

Các sợi trục có myelin chiếm ưu thế nhất trong chất trắng của não. Các bệnh ảnh hưởng đến myelin chủ yếu gây ra các rối loạn chất trắng.

198

Q

How does myelin in peripheral nerves differ from that in the CNS?

A

In peripheral nerves, myelin is produced by Schwann cells, with each Schwann cell providing myelin for only one internode. In contrast, in the CNS, many internodes are created by processes from a single oligodendrocyte.

Additionally, the specialized proteins and lipids in peripheral nerve myelin differ from those in CNS myelin.

Trong các dây thần kinh ngoại biên, myelin được sản xuất bởi các tế bào Schwann, với mỗi tế bào Schwann cung cấp myelin cho chỉ một khoảng cách giữa hai nút. Ngược lại, trong hệ thần kinh trung ương (CNS), nhiều khoảng cách giữa các nút được tạo ra bởi các nhánh từ một tế bào oligodendrocyte duy nhất. Ngoài ra, các protein và lipid chuyên biệt trong myelin của dây thần kinh ngoại biên khác với myelin trong CNS.

  • Dây thần kinh ngoại biên: Myelin do tế bào Schwann sản xuất, mỗi tế bào Schwann chỉ cung cấp myelin cho một khoảng cách giữa hai nút.
  • Hệ thần kinh trung ương (CNS): Myelin do các tế bào oligodendrocyte sản xuất, mỗi tế bào tạo ra myelin cho nhiều khoảng cách giữa các nút.
  • Khác biệt: Các protein và lipid trong myelin của dây thần kinh ngoại biên khác với myelin trong CNS.

199

Q

What are the two broad groups into which diseases involving myelin are typically separated?

A

Diseases involving myelin are typically separated into two broad groups: demyelinating diseases and dysmyelinating diseases.

Các bệnh liên quan đến myelin thường được chia thành hai nhóm chính: bệnh mất myelin và bệnh loạn myelin.

200

Q

Can you provide examples of conditions in each group of diseases involving myelin?

A

  • Bệnh mất myelin:
    • Bao gồm: Bệnh đa xơ cứng (MS), nhiễm virus vào tế bào oligodendrocytes, tổn thương từ thuốc và chất độc.
    • Nguyên nhân: Tổn thương do hệ miễn dịch, nhiễm virus, thuốc và chất độc.
  • Bệnh loạn myelin:
    • Nguyên nhân: Đột biến làm gián đoạn chức năng của các protein cần thiết cho sự hình thành và tái tạo myelin bình thường.
    • Ví dụ: Các bệnh bạch cầu chất trắng (leukodystrophies).

Sure. Demyelinating diseases include multiple sclerosis (MS), which results from immune-mediated injury, as well as conditions caused by viral infections of oligodendrocytes or injury from drugs and toxic agents.

Dysmyelinating diseases, on the other hand, result from mutations disrupting the function of proteins required for normal myelin formation and turnover kinetics. Examples include leukodystrophies.

201

Q

What is multiple sclerosis (MS), and how is it characterized?

A

Multiple sclerosis: Rối loạn tự miễn gây mất myelin.

Đặc điểm: Các đợt thiếu hụt thần kinh cách nhau về thời gian.

Nguyên nhân: Do các tổn thương chất trắng phân bố ở các vị trí khác nhau trong não.

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune demyelinating disorder characterized by distinct episodes of neurologic deficits, which are separated in time and attributable to white matter lesions that are separated in space.

202

Q

Who is most commonly affected by multiple sclerosis, and when does the disease typically become clinically apparent?

A

Women are more commonly affected by multiple sclerosis than men. The disease may become clinically apparent at any age, although onset in childhood or after age 50 is relatively rare.

203

Q

Describe the typical course of multiple sclerosis in most patients.

A

Ở hầu hết bệnh nhân, bệnh đa xơ cứng (Multiple sclerosis) biểu hiện các đợt tái phát và thuyên giảm của sự suy giảm thần kinh.

In most patients, multiple sclerosis shows relapsing and remitting episodes of neurologic impairment.

204

Q

What are the proposed genetic risk factors and pathogenic mechanisms underlying multiple sclerosis?

A

Yếu tố nguy cơ di truyền: Biến thể HLA-DR (đặc biệt là alen DR2) và đa hình gen mã hóa thụ thể IL-2 và IL-7.

Cơ chế bệnh sinh: Phá hủy myelin do tự miễn.Tế bào liên quan: Tế bào T CD4+ (TH17 và TH1), Tế bào T CD8+, và tế bào B.

Tác động độc hại: Lympho bào, đại thực bào và các phân tử tiết ra gây tổn thương sợi trục và có thể dẫn đến cái chết của tế bào thần kinh.

Genetic risk factors for multiple sclerosis include HLA-DR variants, particularly the DR2 allele, and polymorphisms in genes encoding receptors for cytokines IL-2 and IL-7.

The pathogenesis involves autoimmune-mediated myelin destruction, with CD4+ T cells, particularly TH17 and TH1 cells, playing a central role.

Additionally, CD8+ T cells and B cells are also implicated. Toxic effects of lymphocytes, macrophages, and their secreted molecules contribute to axonal injury, potentially leading to neuronal death.

205

Q

What is the central role of CD4+ T cells in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis?

A

CD4+ T cells, particularly TH17 and TH1 cells, are thought to play a critical role in the injury to myelin in multiple sclerosis.

206

Q

Describe the morphology of multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions.

A

Tổn thương MS: Ảnh hưởng chủ yếu đến chất trắng, xuất hiện dưới dạng các mảng tổn thương nhiều, rõ ràng, màu xám và không đều.

Vị trí: Thường xuất hiện gần não thất, các vùng khác của não, dây thần kinh thị giác, giao thoa thị giác, thân não, bó sợi đi lên và đi xuống, tiểu não và tủy sống.

Mảng hoạt động: Dấu hiệu phân hủy myelin đang diễn ra, nhiều đại thực bào chứa mảnh vụn myelin.

Phân loại: Các tổn thương hoạt động nhỏ chia thành bốn loại (I, II, III, IV) dựa trên các đặc điểm thâm nhập đại thực bào, lắng đọng bổ thể, apoptosis và mất tế bào oligodendrocyte.

Mảng không hoạt động: Giảm viêm, tăng sinh tế bào sao và mô đệm đệm nổi bật.

MS lesions primarily affect the white matter and appear as multiple, well-circ*mscribed, depressed, gray, irregularly shaped plaques.

These lesions commonly arise near the ventricles and are also frequent in various brain regions, optic nerves, chiasm, brain stem, ascending and descending fiber tracts, cerebellum, and spinal cord.

Active plaques show evidence of ongoing myelin breakdown with abundant macrophages containing myelin debris.

Small active lesions often center on small veins and fall into four classes: Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV, each with distinct features related to macrophage infiltrates, complement deposition, oligodendrocyte apoptosis, and oligodendrocyte loss, respectively.

Inactive plaques exhibit reduced inflammation, with prominent astrocytic proliferation and gliosis.

207

Q

What are the clinical features of multiple sclerosis (MS)?

A

Diễn biến MS: Thường có nhiều đợt tái phát và thuyên giảm, với sự tích lũy dần dần các thiếu hụt thần kinh.

Thay đổi nhận thức: Thường nhẹ hơn so với các thiếu hụt thần kinh khác.

Phân tích dịch não tủy (CSF): Tăng nhẹ mức protein và tỷ lệ immunoglobulin tăng.

Dấu hiệu bệnh: Các dải oligoclonal trong immunoglobulin là các dấu hiệu của hoạt động bệnh.

The course of MS is variable but commonly involves multiple relapses followed by episodes of remission.

Over time, there is usually a gradual accumulation of neurologic deficits.

Cognitive changes may be present but are often milder than other deficits.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis typically reveals a mildly elevated protein level with an increased proportion of immunoglobulin.

Oligoclonal bands are usually identified in the immunoglobulin, serving as markers of disease activity.

208

Q

How do the clinical features of multiple sclerosis (MS) manifest over time?

A

The clinical course of MS often involves multiple relapses followed by episodes of remission. Gradually, there is an accumulation of neurologic deficits over time.

209

Q

What are oligoclonal bands, and how are they associated with multiple sclerosis (MS)?

A

Oligoclonal bands are bands of immunoglobulins that can be identified in the cerebrospinal fluid of MS patients.

They are directed against a variety of antigenic targets and serve as markers of disease activity in MS.

210

Q

What are the two general patterns of postinfectious autoimmune reactions to myelin, and what are their associated clinical features?

A

Hai mô hình phản ứng tự miễn sau nhiễm trùng đối với myelin:

Viêm não tủy lan tỏa cấp tính (ADEM): Triệu chứng không định vị như đau đầu, lờ đờ, hôn mê; tiến triển nhanh chóng; tử vong tới 20% trường hợp.

Viêm não tủy hoại tử xuất huyết cấp tính: Ảnh hưởng chủ yếu đến thanh niên và trẻ em; là rối loạn nghiêm trọng hơn.

The two general patterns of postinfectious autoimmune reactions to myelin are acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM) and acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis.

ADEM typically presents with non-localizing symptoms such as headache, lethargy, and coma, which progress rapidly.

It is fatal in as many as 20% of cases. On the other hand, acute necrotizing hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis, which primarily affects young adults and children, is a more devastating disorder.

211

Q

What is neuromyelitis optica (NMO), and what are its diagnostic and pathogenic features?

A

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) là bệnh viêm mất myelin, ảnh hưởng chủ yếu đến dây thần kinh thị giác và tủy sống, được đặc trưng bởi các kháng thể chống kênh dẫn nước aquaporin-4.

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease primarily affecting the optic nerves and spinal cord. It is characterized by antibodies targeting the water channel aquaporin-4, which are both diagnostic and pathogenic.

212

Q

Describe central pontine myelinolysis, including its etiology and clinical presentation.

A

Myelinolysis cầu não trung tâm là mất myelin không do miễn dịch ở trung tâm cầu não, thường xảy ra sau khi điều chỉnh nhanh chóng hạ natri máu.

Tình trạng này liên quan đến nghiện rượu và mất cân bằng điện giải hoặc thẩm thấu nghiêm trọng, và thường gây liệt tứ chi tiến triển nhanh do ảnh hưởng đến các sợi dẫn tín hiệu
vận động trong cầu não

Patients typically present with rapidly evolving quadriplegia due to involvement of fibers in the pons carrying signals to motor neurons in the spinal cord.

Central pontine myelinolysis is a nonimmune process characterized by the loss of myelin involving the center of the pons.

It often occurs after rapid correction of hyponatremia, possibly related to edema induced by sudden changes in osmotic pressure.

This condition is commonly associated with alcoholism and severe electrolyte or osmolar imbalance.

Patients typically present with rapidly evolving quadriplegia due to involvement of fibers in the pons carrying signals to motor neurons in the spinal cord.

213

Q

What is progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), and what triggers its occurrence?

A

PML là bệnh mất myelin do virus JC tái hoạt ở bệnh nhân suy giảm miễn dịch

Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) is a demyelinating disease that occurs after reactivation of the JC virus in immunosuppressed patients.

214

Q

What are leukodystrophies, and what are their genetic inheritance patterns?

A

Bệnh bạch cầu chất trắng (leukodystrophies) là các bệnh loạn myelin di truyền, với sự tổng hợp hoặc tái tạo myelin bất thường, dẫn đến các triệu chứng lâm sàng.

Chúng thường được di truyền theo kiểu lặn trên nhiễm sắc thể thường, nhưng cũng có các bệnh liên kết với nhiễm sắc thể X

Leukodystrophies are inherited dysmyelinating diseases characterized by abnormal myelin synthesis or turnover, leading to clinical symptoms.

Most leukodystrophies are inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, although X-linked diseases also occur.

215

Q

Describe the morphological features of leukodystrophies.

A

Bệnh bạch cầu chất trắng (leukodystrophies):

Chất trắng: Thay đổi bệnh lý chủ yếu ở chất trắng, xuất hiện màu xám và trong suốt, thể tích giảm.

Ban đầu: Một số bệnh có tổn thương loang lổ, một số khác ảnh hưởng chủ yếu thùy chẩm.

Cuối cùng: Gần như toàn bộ chất trắng bị ảnh hưởng.

Teo não: Mất chất trắng dẫn đến teo não, não thất phình to, thay đổi thứ phát trong chất xám.

Mất myelin: Dẫn đến xâm nhập đại thực bào chứa đầy lipid.Bao thể đặc biệt:

Một số bệnh có bao thể do tích tụ lipid cụ thể.

In leukodystrophies, most pathological changes are found in the white matter, which appears diffusely abnormal in color (gray and translucent) and volume (decreased).

Initially, some diseases may exhibit patchy involvement, while others preferentially affect the occipital lobe.

Eventually, nearly all of the white matter is typically affected. With loss of white matter, the brain becomes atrophic, ventricles enlarge, and secondary changes occur in the gray matter.

Myelin loss leads to macrophage infiltration, often resulting in lipid-filled macrophages. Some leukodystrophies also exhibit specific inclusions due to the accumulation of particular lipids.

216

Q

What are the clinical features associated with leukodystrophies?

A

Biểu hiện ban đầu: Trẻ trông bình thường khi sinh nhưng chậm đạt các mốc phát triển.

Chất trắng: Sự ảnh hưởng lan tỏa dẫn đến suy giảm kỹ năng vận động.

Triệu chứng: Co cứng, giảm trương lực cơ, mất điều hòa.Tuổi khởi phát: Càng sớm thì mức độ thiếu hụt và tiến triển lâm sàng càng nghiêm trọng.

Affected children typically appear normal at birth but begin to miss developmental milestones during infancy and childhood.

The diffuse involvement of white matter leads to deterioration in motor skills, accompanied by symptoms such as spasticity, hypotonia, or ataxia.

Generally, the earlier the age at onset, the more severe the deficiency and clinical course.

217

Q

T180 What are peripheral neuropathies?

A

Bệnh lý thần kinh ngoại biên: Rối loạn liên quan đến dây thần kinh ngoại biên

.Thành phần: Bao gồm các bó sợi chứa các sợi trục có myelin và không có myelin.

Peripheral neuropathies are disorders involving the peripheral nerves, which consist of fascicles containing myelinated and unmyelinated axons.

218

Q

What distinguishes axonal neuropathies from demyelinating neuropathies?

A

Bệnh lý thần kinh do tổn thương sợi trục:

Tổn thương trực tiếp sợi trục, thoái hóa phần xa của sợi trục, teo các sợi cơ.

Bệnh lý thần kinh do mất myelin: Tổn thương tế bào Schwann hoặc myelin, dẫn truyền thần kinh chậm, mất myelin đoạn trong các khoảng myelin cá nhân.

Axonal neuropathies involve direct injury to the axon, leading to degeneration of the distal portion of the affected axon and subsequent atrophy of myofibers.

Demyelinating neuropathies, on the other hand, result from Schwann cell injury or myelin damage, causing slow nerve conduction and segmental demyelination in individual myelin internodes.

219

Q

What are the causes of axonal neuropathies?

A

Nguyên nhân của bệnh lý thần kinh do tổn thương sợi trục:

Bệnh lý: Tiểu đường, bệnh mạch máu, lupus.

Rối loạn chuyển hóa: Bệnh thần kinh do tiểu đường.

Di truyền: Bệnh Charcot-Marie-Tooth.

Viêm mạch: Vasculitis.

Bệnh truyền nhiễm: Bệnh phong.

Xâm lấn khối u: Vào dây thần kinh ngoại biên

.Chất độc: Rượu, chì, glucocorticoids.

Axonal neuropathies can be caused by various factors, including diabetes, vascular disease, inflammatory diseases such as lupus, metabolic disorders like diabetic neuropathy, hereditary conditions

such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, vasculitis, infectious diseases like leprosy, neoplastic invasion of peripheral nerves, and exposure to toxins such as alcohol, lead, or glucocorticoids.

220

Q

What characterizes demyelinating neuropathies?

A

Đặc điểm: Tổn thương tế bào Schwann hoặc myelin.

Hậu quả: Dẫn truyền thần kinh chậm, mất myelin đoạn.

Tái tạo myelin: Có thể xảy ra với các quá trình lặp lại, tạo ra cấu trúc “hành củ”.

Demyelinating neuropathies are characterized by Schwann cell injury or myelin damage, leading to slow nerve conduction and segmental demyelination in individual myelin internodes. Remyelination may occur with repetitive processes, resulting in the formation of “Onion bulb” structures.

221

Q

What are the causes of demyelinating neuropathies?

A

Demyelinating neuropathies can result from various factors, including inflammatory diseases, metabolic disorders, hereditary conditions, vascular diseases, infectious diseases, neoplastic invasion of peripheral nerves, and exposure to toxins.

222

Q

What characterizes polyneuropathies?

A

Bệnh đa dây thần kinh (polyneuropathies): Ảnh hưởng đối xứng đến các dây thần kinh ngoại biên.

Mất sợi trục: Lan tỏa, rõ rệt hơn ở các đoạn xa của dây thần kinh dài nhất.

Triệu chứng: Mất cảm giác.

Polyneuropathies typically affect peripheral nerves symmetrically, with diffuse axonal loss more pronounced in the distal segments of the longest nerves. Patients commonly present with loss of sensation.

223

Q

What distinguishes multiplex neuropathies?

A

Multiplex neuropathies: Tổn thương ngẫu nhiên ảnh hưởng đến các phần của từng dây thần kinh

.Biểu hiện: Có thể bao gồm liệt dây thần kinh quay phải và rủ cổ tay, cùng với mất cảm giác ở chân trái.

Multiplex neuropathies involve damage that randomly affects portions of individual nerves. This can result in various manifestations, such as a right radial nerve palsy and wrist drop together with loss of sensation in the left foot.

224

Q

What causes a simple mononeuropathy?o

A

Đơn bệnh thần kinh (simple mononeuropathy): Ảnh hưởng đến một dây thần kinh duy nhất.

Nguyên nhân: Thường do chấn thương hoặc chèn ép, ví dụ như hội chứng ống cổ tay.

A simple mononeuropathy, involving only a single nerve, most commonly results from traumatic injury or entrapment, such as in carpal tunnel syndrome.

225

Q

What is Guillain-Barre syndrome?

A

Hội chứng Guillain-Barré: Bệnh lý viêm tự miễn cấp tính gây mất myelin ở dây thần kinh ngoại biên.

Đặc trưng: Yếu liệt tiến triển nhanh chóng từ dưới lên trên

.Nguy hiểm: Có thể dẫn đến suy hô hấp và tử vong trong vài ngày

.Phổ biến: Là một trong những bệnh lý đe dọa tính mạng phổ biến nhất của hệ thần kinh ngoại biên.

Guillain-Barre syndrome is an acute autoimmune demyelinating peripheral neuropathy characterized by rapidly progressive ascending weakness that can lead to respiratory muscle failure and death within a few days. It is one of the most common life-threatening diseases of the peripheral nervous system.

226

Q

What triggers Guillain-Barre syndrome?

A

Hội chứng Guillain-Barré: Kích hoạt bởi nhiễm trùng hoặc tiêm chủng, làm gián đoạn sự dung nạp miễn dịch và gây phản ứng tự miễn

.Tác nhân gây nhiễm trùng liên quan:
Campylobacter jejuni
Virus Epstein-Barr
Cytomegalovirus
Virus HIV.

Guillain-Barre syndrome appears to be triggered by infections or vaccinations that disrupt self-tolerance, leading to an autoimmune response. Associated infectious agents include Campylobacter jejuni, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, and human immunodeficiency virus.

227

Q

What immune mechanisms are involved in Guillain-Barre syndrome?

A

Cơ chế: Kháng thể và tế bào T phản ứng với kháng nguyên trên dây thần kinh ngoại biên, gây viêm và phá hủy myelin và sợi trục.

Điều trị: Trao đổi huyết tương cải thiện lâm sàng, cho thấy phản ứng miễn dịch thể dịch.

In Guillain-Barre syndrome, antibodies and activated T-lymphocytes react with antigens present on peripheral nerves, eliciting an inflammatory and macrophage reaction that destroys myelin and axons.

Plasma exchange results in significant clinical improvement, suggesting a humoral immune reaction

Cơ chế: Kháng thể và tế bào T phản ứng với kháng nguyên trên dây thần kinh ngoại biên, gây viêm và phá hủy myelin và sợi trục.

Điều trị: Trao đổi huyết tương cải thiện lâm sàng, cho thấy phản ứng miễn dịch thể dịch

228

Q

What are the pathological features of Guillain-Barre syndrome?

A

Hội chứng Guillain-Barré:Đặc trưng bởi sự xâm nhập của các tế bào đơn nhân giàu đại thực bào vào dây thần kinh ngoại biên.

Mất myelin: Gây tăng protein trong dịch não tủy (CSF).

Tổn thương sợi trục: Mức độ thay đổi, có thể nghiêm trọng.

Tổn thương nghiêm trọng nhất: Ở rễ thần kinh và các đoạn gần của dây thần kinh.

Phục hồi: Quá trình tái tạo dây thần kinh với vỏ myelin mỏng.

Guillain-Barre syndrome is characterized by mononuclear cell infiltrates rich in macrophages in peripheral nerves, demyelination (elevated CSF protein), and variable axonal damage, which can be severe.

Pathology is most severe in nerve roots and proximal nerve segments and less pronounced in distal nerves. During recovery, nerve regeneration with thin myelin sheaths occurs.

229

Q

What are the treatment options for Guillain-Barre syndrome?

A

Điều trị hội chứng Guillain-Barré:Trao đổi huyết tương: Loại bỏ các kháng thể gây hại.

Truyền immunoglobulin tĩnh mạch: Điều trị bằng các kháng thể.

Chăm sóc hỗ trợ: Bao gồm hỗ trợ thở bằng máy nếu cần

Treatments for Guillain-Barre syndrome include plasmapheresis (to remove offending antibodies), intravenous immunoglobulin infusions, and supportive care, such as ventilator support.

230

Q

What is chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)?

A

Bệnh đa dây thần kinh viêm mãn tính mất myelin (CIDP):

Đặc điểm: Mất myelin đối xứng của dây thần kinh ngoại biên.

Cơ chế: Tương tự cơ chế miễn dịch của hội chứng Guillain-Barré (GBS).

Tiến trình: Mãn tính, có thể tái phát-thuyên giảm hoặc tiến triển.

Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) is a symmetric demyelinating disease of the peripheral nerves. It shares similar immune pathomechanisms with Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS), but unlike GBS, CIDP follows a chronic, relapsing-remitting, or progressive course.

231

Q

What factors are associated with an increased risk of CIDP?

A

Tần suất tăng: Thường gặp hơn ở bệnh nhân mắc các rối loạn miễn dịch khác.

Các rối loạn liên quan: Lupus ban đỏ hệ thống và nhiễm HIV.

CIDP occurs at an increased frequency in patients with other immune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and HIV infection.

232

Q

What are the pathological features of CIDP?

A

In CIDP, the peripheral nerves show segments of demyelination and remyelination. In long-standing cases, chronically regenerating Schwann cells may concentrically wrap around axons in multiple layers, forming an onion-skin pattern.

CIDP: Bệnh đa dây thần kinh viêm mãn tính mất myelin.

Đặc điểm dây thần kinh ngoại biên:Các đoạn mất myelin và tái tạo myelin.

Tế bào Schwann tái tạo mãn tính tạo thành mô hình vỏ hành.

233

Q

What are the common symptoms of CIDP?

A

CIDP: Gây ra các bất thường về vận động và cảm giác.Triệu chứng: Khó đi lại, yếu cơ, tê bì, đau hoặc ngứa ran.

Hậu quả: Các đợt triệu chứng tái phát có thể dẫn đến mất chức năng dây thần kinh vĩnh viễn.

Both motor and sensory abnormalities are common in CIDP, including difficulty in walking, weakness, numbness, and pain or tingling sensations.

Recurrent bouts of symptomatic disease can lead to permanent loss of nerve function.

234

Q

How is CIDP treated?

A

Treatment of CIDP includes plasmapheresis (to remove antibodies) and administration of immunosuppressive agents to modulate the immune response.

235

Q

T1 #anatomical component of the eye:

A

Orbit
 Eyelid
 Conjunctiva
 Cornea
 Uvea (iris, ciliary body, choroid)
 Lens
 Vitreous body
 Retina
 Optic Nerve

236

Q

What is panophthalmitis?

A

Viêm toàn bộ mắt (Panophthalmitis):Nguyên nhân: Các vi khuẩn sinh mủ mạnh như meningococci, pneumococci, streptococci, vi khuẩn than, và clostridia.

Triệu chứng ban đầu: Đau, sốt, nhức đầu, buồn ngủ, phù nề và sưng.

Panophthalmitis is inflammation of the entire eye, usually caused by virulent pyogenic organisms such as strains of meningococci, pneumococci, streptococci, anthrax bacilli, and clostridia. Initial symptoms include pain, fever, headache, drowsiness, edema, and swelling.

237

Q

What are the symptoms of bacterial conjunctivitis?

A

Viêm kết mạc do vi khuẩn:

Đặc trưng: Các mạch máu kết mạc tăng sinh (mắt hồng).

Dịch viêm: Tích tụ trong túi kết mạc, thường kết thành lớp vảy, làm mí mắt dính lại vào buổi sáng.Dịch tiết kết mạc: Có thể là mủ, fibrin, huyết thanh hoặc xuất huyết.

Bacterial conjunctivitis is characterized by hyperemic conjunctival blood vessels (pink eye). The inflammatory exudate that accumulates in the conjunctival sac commonly crusts, causing the eyelids to stick together in the morning. The conjunctival discharge may be purulent, fibrinous, serous, or hemorrhagic.

238

Q

What is trachoma?

A

Bệnh mắt hột (Trachoma):

Nguyên nhân: Chlamydia trachomatis.
Đặc điểm: Viêm kết mạc mãn tính và lây nhiễm.
Biến chứng: Sẹo kết mạc và giác mạc, gây mù lòa nếu không điều trị.

Trachoma is a chronic, contagious conjunctivitis caused by Chlamydia trachomatis. It can lead to scarring of the conjunctiva and cornea, resulting in blindness if left untreated.

239

Q

What is ophthalmia neonatorum?

A

Viêm kết mạc sơ sinh (Ophthalmia neonatorum):

Nguyên nhân: Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

Đặc điểm: Viêm kết mạc cấp tính nặng, dịch mủ, đặc biệt ở trẻ sơ sinh.
Biến chứng: Sẹo giác mạc, mù lòa nếu không được điều trị kịp thời.

Ophthalmia neonatorum is severe, acute conjunctivitis with a purulent discharge, especially in newborns, caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It is a serious condition that requires prompt treatment to prevent complications such as corneal scarring and blindness.

240

Q

What is keratitis?

A

Viêm giác mạc (Keratitis):

Đặc điểm: Viêm giác mạc, gây đau từ vừa đến nặng, suy giảm thị lực.

Loại:Viêm giác mạc bề mặt: Liên quan đến các lớp bề mặt của giác mạc, không để lại sẹo.

Viêm giác mạc sâu: Liên quan đến các lớp sâu hơn của giác mạc, có thể để lại sẹo làm giảm thị lực.

Keratitis is inflammation of the cornea. It is often marked by moderate to intense pain and can cause impaired eyesight.

There are two types: superficial keratitis, which involves the superficial layers of the cornea and typically does not leave a scar, and deep keratitis, which involves deeper layers and may leave a scar that impairs vision.

241

Q

What are the causes of keratitis?

A

Nguyên nhân gây viêm giác mạc (Keratitis):

Nhiễm virus: Virus herpes simplex.

Nhiễm amip.Nhiễm vi khuẩn: Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Nhiễm nấm.

Viêm giác mạc do tia UV (photokeratitis).

Keratitis can be caused by various factors, including viral infections such as herpes simplex virus, amoebic infections, bacterial infections (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa), fungal infections, and photokeratitis (UV keratitis).

242

Q

What is Fuchs (endothelial) dystrophy?

A

Bệnh loạn dưỡng Fuchs (Fuchs dystrophy):

Đặc điểm: Các nốt guttata (chồi lồi xuống từ màng Descemet trong giác mạc).

Nguyên nhân chính: Tổn thương tế bào nội mô.

Hậu quả: Là nguyên nhân chính dẫn đến ghép giác mạc.

Fuchs dystrophy is a condition characterized by guttata, which are bullous protrusions downward from Descemet membrane in the cornea. It is a major reason for corneal transplantation and is primarily caused by endothelial damage.

243

Q

What are cataracts?

A

Đục thủy tinh thể (Cataracts):

Đặc điểm: Đục trong thủy tinh thể, gây suy giảm thị lực và mù lòa.

Loại: Bẩm sinh hoặc mắc phải.

Nguyên nhân phổ biến: Lão hóa

.Nguyên nhân khác: Bệnh hệ thống, thuốc, bức xạ, chấn thương, thiếu hụt riboflavin hoặc tryptophan, yếu tố di truyền.

Cataracts are opacifications in the crystalline lens that can cause visual impairment and blindness. They can be congenital or acquired and are commonly associated with aging. Other causes include systemic diseases, drugs, radiation, trauma, deficiencies in riboflavin or tryptophan, and inherited factors.

244

Q

What is a chalazion?

A

Chalazion là một u nang nhỏ trong mí mắt do viêm tuyến meibomian bị tắc.

Tuyến meibomian là loại tuyến bã nhờn đặc biệt có nhiệm vụ cung cấp dầu cho lớp phim nước mắt của mắt, ngăn chặn sự bay hơi của nước mắt.

245

Q

What are the signs and symptoms of a chalazion?

A

Dấu hiệu và triệu chứng của chalazion:

Sưng: Sưng trên mí mắt.

Đau: Nhạy cảm khi chạm vào mí mắt.

Nhạy cảm với ánh sáng: Cảm thấy khó chịu khi tiếp xúc với ánh sáng.

Tăng tiết nước mắt: Nước mắt chảy nhiều hơn bình thường.

Cảm giác nặng nề: Cảm giác mí mắt nặng nề.

Signs and symptoms of a chalazion include swelling on the eyelid, eyelid tenderness, sensitivity to light, increased tearing, and heaviness of the eyelid.

246

Q

What is a stye (hordeola)?

A

Lẹo (Stye hoặc Hordeola):

Nguyên nhân: Nhiễm trùng các tuyến bã nhờn của Zeis hoặc các tuyến mồ hôi apocrine của Moll.

Vị trí: Ở chân lông mi.

A stye, or hordeola, is an infection of the sebaceous glands of Zeis at the base of the eyelashes, or an infection of the apocrine sweat glands of Moll.

247

Q

What are the characteristics of styes?

A

Lẹo (Stye):

Lẹo bên ngoài: Hình thành trên bên ngoài mí mắt, nốt đỏ nhỏ.

Lẹo bên trong: Nhiễm trùng tuyến bã nhờn meibomian bên trong mí mắt.

Triệu chứng: Nốt đỏ dưới mí mắt, đỏ và sưng tổng quát bên ngoài.

Khởi phát và thời gian: Khởi phát cấp tính, kéo dài 7-10 ngày không điều trị.

Nguyên nhân: Vi khuẩn Staphylococcus aureus.

Nguy cơ lây lan: Có thể lây lan vi khuẩn nếu bị vỡ mạnh.

External styes form on the outside of the eyelids and appear as small red bumps.

Internal styes are infections of the meibomian sebaceous glands lining the inside of the eyelids.

They contain water and pus and may cause a red bump underneath the lid with generalized redness and swelling visible on the outside.

Styes have an acute onset, usually short duration (7–10 days without treatment), and can spread bacteria if forcefully ruptured.

They are usually caused by the Staphylococcus aureus bacterium.

248

Q

What is glaucoma?

A

Bệnh tăng nhãn áp (Glaucoma):

Đặc trưng: Bệnh lý thần kinh thị giác, sự đào sâu của đầu dây thần kinh thị giác.

Hậu quả: Mất dần độ nhạy cảm của trường thị giác.

Glaucoma is a collection of disorders characterized by an optic neuropathy accompanied by a characteristic excavation of the optic nerve head and progressive loss of visual field sensitivity.

249

Q

What causes glaucoma?

A

Bệnh tăng nhãn áp (Glaucoma):

Nguyên nhân chính: Tăng áp lực nội nhãn (ocular hypertension).

Lưu ý: Tăng áp lực nội nhãn không nhất thiết gây ra bệnh tăng nhãn áp.

Glaucoma is primarily caused by increased intraocular pressure (ocular hypertension), although increased intraocular pressure does not necessarily cause glaucoma.

250

Q

How does glaucoma occur?

A

Bệnh tăng nhãn áp (Glaucoma):

Nguyên nhân: Mất cân bằng giữa sản xuất và thoát dịch thể thủy.

Tích tụ dịch thể thủy: Dẫn đến tăng áp lực nội nhãn.

Hậu quả: Tăng áp lực nội nhãn gây tổn thương dây thần kinh thị giác và mất thị lực.

Glaucoma occurs due to an imbalance between the production and drainage of the aqueous humor, the fluid that maintains intraocular pressure within its physiologic range.

In certain pathologic states, aqueous humor accumulates within the eye, leading to increased intraocular pressure.

This increased pressure can damage the optic nerve and result in vision loss.

251

Q

What are the types of glaucoma?

A

Tăng nhãn áp bẩm sinh.

Tăng nhãn áp nguyên phát khởi phát ở người lớn.

Tăng nhãn áp góc mở nguyên phát.

Glaucoma can be classified into several different types, including congenital glaucoma, adult onset primary glaucoma, and primary open angle glaucoma.

252

Q

What are the two most common cancers that spread to the eye from another organ?

A

The two most common cancers that metastasize to the eye from another organ are breast cancer and lung cancer.

253

Q

What are some examples of benign tumors in the eye and orbit?

A

Các khối u lành tính trong mắt và hốc mắt:

U nang bì (Dermoid cysts): Thường xuất hiện tại vị trí giao nhau của các đường khớp, đặc biệt là khớp trán-gò má.

Tác động áp lực: Gây áp lực lên các cơ và dây thần kinh thị giác.

Triệu chứng: Nhìn đôi (diplopia) và mất thị lực.

Benign tumors in the eye and orbit include dermoid cysts, which are typically found at the junction of sutures, most commonly at the fronto-zygomatic suture.

These cysts can cause pressure effects on the muscles and optic nerve, leading to symptoms such as diplopia and loss of vision.

254

Q

What are some common types of eyelid tumors?

A

Các khối u mí mắt phổ biến:

Ung thư biểu mô tế bào đáy (basal cell carcinoma): Phổ biến nhất, hiếm khi lan sang các phần khác của cơ thể.

Ung thư biểu mô tế bào vảy (squamous carcinoma).

Ung thư biểu mô tuyến bã (sebaceous carcinoma).

U hắc tố ác tính (malignant melanoma).

The most common eyelid tumor is basal cell carcinoma, which rarely spreads to other parts of the body.

Other common eyelid cancers include squamous carcinoma, sebaceous carcinoma, and malignant melanoma.

255

Q

What is the most common malignant primary intraocular tumor in adults?

A

Khối u ác tính nguyên phát trong mắt phổ biến nhất ở người lớn:U hắc mạc (uveal melanoma).

Vị trí: Màng mạch, mống mắt, thể mi.
The most common malignant primary intraocular tumor in adults is uveal melanoma. These tumors can occur in the choroid, iris, and ciliary body.

256

Q

What is the most common malignant intraocular tumor in children?

A

The most common malignant intraocular tumor in children is retinoblastoma.

257

Q

T183 What are the two main types of muscle fibers?

A

Hai loại sợi cơ chính:

Sợi co chậm (sợi hiếu khí, loại I).

Sợi co nhanh (sợi kỵ khí, loại II).

The two main types of muscle fibers are slow-twitch (aerobic) fibers, also known as type I fibers, and fast-twitch (anaerobic) fibers, also known as type II fibers.

258

Q

What is the normal distribution pattern of muscle fibers?

A

BÀN CỜ
The normal distribution pattern of muscle fibers is a checkboard pattern.

259

Q

What is muscle atrophy?

A

Muscle atrophy refers to abnormally small myofibers due to various disorders, such as immobilization, exogenous glucocorticoids, or Cushing syndrome.

260

Q

What is neurogenic atrophy?

A

Teo cơ do thần kinh (Neurogenic atrophy):

Định nghĩa: Teo cơ do tổn thương dây thần kinh kích thích cơ.

Nguyên nhân:
Bệnh thần kinh do tiểu đường.
Chấn thương tủy sống.
Hội chứng chèn ép dây thần kinh.

Neurogenic atrophy refers to atrophy of muscles resulting from damage to the nerve that stimulates the muscle. It can occur in conditions such as diabetic neuropathy, spinal cord injuries, or syndromes that cause nerve impingement.

261

Q

What is fiber type grouping, and when does it occur?

A

Hiện tượng nhóm loại sợi cơ (Fiber type grouping):

Nguyên nhân: Mất một neuron đơn lẻ ảnh hưởng đến tất cả các sợi cơ trong một đơn vị vận động.

Đáp ứng: Các neuron liền kề gửi nhánh mới kết nối với khớp thần kinh cơ (NMJ).

Kết quả: Các sợi cơ bị ảnh hưởng được chi phối bởi cùng một neuron.

Fiber type grouping occurs when the loss of a single neuron affects all muscle fibers in a motor unit. In response to this loss, adjacent intact neurons send out sprouts to engage the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), leading to the affected fibers being innervated by the same neuron.

262

Q

What are the two most common disorders of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)?

A

Hai rối loạn phổ biến nhất của khớp thần kinh cơ:

Bệnh nhược cơ (Myasthenia gravis).

Hội chứng Lambert-Eaton.

The two most common disorders of the neuromuscular junction are Myasthenia gravis and Lambert-Eaton syndrome.

263

Q

What is Myasthenia gravis?

A

Bệnh nhược cơ (Myasthenia gravis):

Nguyên nhân: Tự kháng thể ngăn chặn thụ thể acetylcholine hậu synap.

Hậu quả: Gây yếu cơ.

Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disease caused by autoantibodies that block the function of postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors at motor end plates, leading to muscle weakness.

264

Q

What is the cause of Myasthenia gravis?

A

Bệnh nhược cơ (Myasthenia gravis):

Nguyên nhân: Tự kháng thể ngăn chặn thụ thể acetylcholine hậu synap.

Loại bệnh: Bệnh tự miễn.

Tỷ lệ mắc bệnh: Phổ biến hơn ở phụ nữ.

Liên quan: Thường kèm theo các bất thường tuyến ức như tăng sản tuyến ức hoặc u tuyến ức (thymoma).

Myasthenia gravis is caused by autoantibodies that block the function of postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors at motor end plates.

It is an autoimmune disease, more common in females, and often associated with thymic abnormalities such as thymic hyperplasia or thymoma.

265

Q

What are the clinical features of Myasthenia gravis?

A

Đặc điểm lâm sàng của bệnh nhược cơ (Myasthenia gravis):

Sụp mí (ptosis): Mí mắt sụp xuống.

Nhìn đôi (diplopia): Nhìn thấy hai hình ảnh.

Yếu cơ: Trở nên tồi tệ hơn khi sử dụng và cải thiện khi nghỉ ngơi.

Clinical features of Myasthenia gravis include ptosis (drooping eyelid), diplopia (double vision), and muscle weakness that worsens with use and improves with rest.

266

Q

How can the symptoms of Myasthenia gravis be improved?

A

Điều trị bệnh nhược cơ (Myasthenia gravis):

Thuốc kháng cholinesterase: Tăng nồng độ acetylcholine tại khớp thần kinh cơ, cải thiện triệu chứng.

Ức chế miễn dịch: Giảm hoạt động của hệ miễn dịch.

Trao đổi huyết tương (plasmapheresis): Loại bỏ các tự kháng thể khỏi máu.

Phẫu thuật cắt bỏ tuyến ức (thymectomy): Ở bệnh nhân có tổn thương tuyến ức.

The symptoms of Myasthenia gravis can be improved with anti-cholinesterase agents, which increase the concentration of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, allowing it to compete better with the autoantibodies.

Other treatment options include immunosuppression, plasmapheresis, and thymectomy in patients with thymic lesions.

267

Q

What is Lambert-Eaton syndrome?

A

Hội chứng Lambert-Eaton:

Đặc trưng: Kháng thể chống lại các kênh calci tiền synap tại khớp thần kinh cơ.

Hậu quả: Giảm phóng thích acetylcholine.

Lambert-Eaton syndrome is a neuromuscular disorder characterized by antibodies against presynaptic calcium channels at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), leading to impaired acetylcholine release.

268

Q

What is the association between Lambert-Eaton syndrome and cancer?

A

Hội chứng Lambert-Eaton

:Nguyên nhân: Thường là hội chứng cận ung thư

.Liên quan: Phổ biến nhất là ung thư biểu mô tế bào nhỏ.

Lambert-Eaton syndrome often arises as a paraneoplastic syndrome, most commonly associated with small cell carcinoma.

269

Q

How does Lambert-Eaton syndrome affect muscle function?

A

Hội chứng Lambert-Eaton:

Triệu chứng: Yếu cơ gần, cải thiện khi sử dụng.

Khác biệt: Mắt thường không bị ảnh hưởng, khác với bệnh nhược cơ.

Lambert-Eaton syndrome leads to proximal muscle weakness that improves with use. Unlike myasthenia gravis, the eyes are usually spared in Lambert-Eaton syndrome.

270

Q

What is the underlying mechanism of muscle weakness in Lambert-Eaton syndrome?

A

Hội chứng Lambert-Eaton:

Cơ chế: Kháng thể chống lại các kênh calci tiền synap tại khớp thần kinh cơ.

Hậu quả: Giảm phóng thích acetylcholine, dẫn đến yếu cơ.

In Lambert-Eaton syndrome, antibodies against presynaptic calcium channels at the neuromuscular junction impair acetylcholine release, resulting in muscle weakness.

271

Q

What are dystrophinopathies?

A

Các bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ liên quan đến dystrophin (Dystrophinopathies):

Dạng phổ biến: Loạn dưỡng cơ duch*enne (DMD) và loạn dưỡng cơ Becker (BMD)

.Đặc trưng: Đột biến trong gen dystrophin.

Dystrophinopathies, including duch*enne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD), are the most common forms of muscular dystrophy.

They are characterized by mutations in the dystrophin gene.

272

Q

How do duch*enne and Becker muscular dystrophy differ?

A

Loạn dưỡng cơ duch*enne (DMD):

Nghiêm trọng hơn: So với loạn dưỡng cơ Becker (BMD).

Rối loạn liên kết X: Liên quan đến tiêu biến cơ và thay thế bằng mô mỡ.

Xuất hiện và tiến triển: DMD xuất hiện sớm hơn và tiến triển nhanh hơn BMD.

duch*enne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is more severe than Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD).

Both are X-linked disorders associated with muscle wasting and replacement of skeletal muscle by adipose tissue.

However, DMD typically presents earlier and progresses more rapidly than BMD.

273

Q

What is the role of dystrophin in muscle function?

A

Dystrophin:

Vai trò: Protein “liên kết” kết nối bộ xương tế bào myofibril với chất nền ngoại bào (ECM).

Hậu quả của đột biến: Thiếu hoặc rối loạn chức năng dystrophin do đột biến gen dẫn đến thoái hóa và yếu cơ trong các bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ liên quan đến dystrophin.

Dystrophin plays a crucial role as a “linker” protein that connects the myofibrillar cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix (ECM).

Its absence or dysfunction due to mutations in the dystrophin gene leads to muscle degeneration and weakness seen in dystrophinopathies.

274

Q

What is the pathogenesis of dystrophinopathies?

A

Các bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ liên quan đến dystrophin (Dystrophinopathies):

Nguyên nhân: Đột biến mất chức năng trong gen dystrophin trên nhánh ngắn của nhiễm sắc thể X.

Hậu quả: Thiếu hụt hoặc sản xuất không đủ dystrophin, dẫn đến thoái hóa cơ và thay thế bằng mô sợi và mỡ.

Dystrophinopathies result from loss-of-function mutations in the dystrophin gene, which is located on the short arm of the X chromosome.

This genetic defect leads to the absence or insufficient production of dystrophin, contributing to muscle degeneration and fibrofatty replacement.

275

Q

What are the clinical features of duch*enne muscular dystrophy?

A

Loạn dưỡng cơ duch*enne (DMD):

Tiến triển: Bắt đầu từ vùng chậu và lan đến vai, sau đó đến các cơ xa.

Dấu hiệu đặc trưng: Giả phì đại bắp chân.

Biến chứng: Suy tim khi bệnh tiến triển.

duch*enne muscular dystrophy progresses to involve distal muscles, typically starting in the pelvic region and spreading to the shoulders. A characteristic finding is calf pseudohypertrophy.

Additionally, heart failure may occur as the disease progresses.

276

Q

What are limb-girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMDs)?

A

Các bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ đai chi (LGMDs):

Đặc điểm: Chủ yếu ảnh hưởng đến các cơ gần, giống với mô hình của các bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ liên kết X.

Di truyền: Có thể di truyền theo kiểu lặn hoặc trội.

Limb-girdle muscular dystrophies (LGMDs) are a group of autosomal muscular dystrophies that primarily affect the proximal muscles, resembling the pattern seen in X-linked muscular dystrophies.

LGMDs can be inherited in either a recessive or dominant manner.

277

Q

What distinguishes myotonic dystrophy from other forms of muscular dystrophy?

A

Bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ myotonic (Myotonic dystrophy):Đặc điểm:

Myotonia (co cơ không tự nguyện kéo dài).

Di truyền: Kiểu trội trên nhiễm sắc thể thường.

Liên quan: Sự mở rộng lặp lại trinucleotide CTG trên nhiễm sắc thể 19.

Myotonic dystrophy is characterized by myotonia, which refers to sustained involuntary contraction of muscle groups.

Unlike other forms of muscular dystrophy, myotonic dystrophy is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner and is associated with a CTG trinucleotide repeat expansion on chromosome 19.

278

Q

How does myotonic dystrophy manifest clinically?

A

Bệnh loạn dưỡng cơ myotonic (Myotonic dystrophy):Xuất hiện: Cuối thời thơ ấu.

Triệu chứng:Bất thường khi đi lại.Yếu cơ ở tay, cổ tay và cơ mặt.

Đặc điểm nổi bật: Myotonia (co cơ kéo dài và cứng cơ).

Myotonic dystrophy typically presents in late childhood with various symptoms, including gait abnormalities, weakness in the hands, wrists, and facial muscles.

The hallmark feature of myotonic dystrophy is myotonia, which can cause prolonged muscle contractions and stiffness.

279

Q

What is the distinction between primary myopathy and secondary neuropathic changes?

A

Bệnh cơ nguyên phát (Primary myopathy):

Nguồn gốc: Từ chính mô cơ (ví dụ, loạn dưỡng cơ).

Thay đổi thần kinh thứ phát (Secondary neuropathic changes):

Nguồn gốc: Từ các rối loạn ảnh hưởng đến sự chi phối cơ.

Cả hai điều kiện:

Kết quả: Đều dẫn đến thay đổi chức năng cơ, nhưng do các nguyên nhân khác nhau.

Primary myopathy refers to muscle diseases that originate within the muscle tissue itself, such as muscular dystrophy, whereas secondary neuropathic changes result from disorders affecting muscle innervation.

Both conditions lead to altered muscle function but for different reasons.

280

Q

What are some characteristic features of congenital myopathies?

A

Bệnh cơ bẩm sinh (Congenital myopathies):Bệnh cơ kênh ion (Ion channel myopathies):

Biểu hiện: Myotonia hoặc các đợt liệt cơ giảm trương lực.

Bệnh cơ do lỗi bẩm sinh của quá trình chuyển hóa (Myopathies due to inborn errors of metabolism):

Liên quan: Rối loạn tổng hợp glycogen, xử lý lipid hoặc vận chuyển carnitine.

Bệnh cơ ty thể (Mitochondrial myopathies):

Đặc trưng: Đột biến trong DNA ty thể hoặc nhân.Biểu hiện: Các sợi cơ không đều và các cụm ty thể bất thường.

Congenital myopathies encompass a diverse group of conditions.

Some examples include ion channel myopathies, which may present with myotonia or episodes of hypotonic paralysis, and myopathies due to inborn errors of metabolism, which involve disorders of glycogen synthesis, lipid handling, or carnitine transport.

Additionally, mitochondrial myopathies, characterized by mutations in mitochondrial or nuclear DNA, often exhibit irregular muscle fibers and abnormal mitochondrial aggregates.

281

Q

How do mitochondrial myopathies typically present clinically?

A

Bệnh cơ ty thể (Mitochondrial myopathies)

:Biểu hiện: Yếu cơ gần, đặc biệt ảnh hưởng đến cơ mắt.

Thời điểm xuất hiện: Thường xuất hiện ở tuổi trưởng thành trẻ.

Di truyền: Có thể có kiểu di truyền từ mẹ do các đột biến trong DNA ty thể.

Mitochondrial myopathies usually manifest with proximal muscle weakness, particularly affecting the ocular musculature.

These disorders often present in young adulthood and may exhibit maternal inheritance patterns due to mutations in mitochondrial DNA.

282

Q

What are examples of toxic muscle injury?

A

Ví dụ về bệnh cơ:

Tiếp xúc nội sinh: Bệnh cơ do thyroxine.
Tiếp xúc ngoại sinh: Tiếp xúc với ethanol hoặc chloroquine.

Examples include thyroxine myopathy (intrinsic exposure) and exposure to substances like ethanol or chloroquine (extrinsic exposure).

283

Q

What are the clinical features of toxic muscle injury?

A

Đặc điểm lâm sàng:

Yếu cơ gần:
Cấp tính hoặc mãn tính.
Hoại tử sợi cơ.Tái tạo sợi cơ.
Thâm nhiễm bạch cầu lympho kẽ.

Clinical features may include acute or chronic proximal muscle weakness, myofiber necrosis, regeneration, and interstitial lymphocytic infiltration.

284

Q

What are the characteristic features of dermatomyositis?

A

Bệnh viêm da cơ (Dermatomyositis):

Ảnh hưởng: Da và cơ xương.

Đặc điểm lâm sàng:Yếu cơ gần hai bên.

Biểu hiện da: Phát ban heliotrope và phát ban malar.

Nốt sần da đặc trưng.

Dermatomyositis involves inflammatory disorders affecting both the skin and skeletal muscle.

Clinical features include bilateral proximal weakness, skin manifestations like a heliotrope rash and malar rash, and characteristic skin papules.

285

Q

How does dermatomyositis differ from polymyositis?

A

Tóm tắt: Dermatomyositis có biểu hiện trên da, với sự xâm nhập tế bào vi khuẩn đơn nhóm xung quanh mạch máu và tổn thương cơ bắp, trong khi polymyositis không có biểu hiện trên da và thường thấy viêm nội bào cơ bắp.

Dermatomyositis involves skin manifestations, while polymyositis does not.

Microscopically, dermatomyositis shows perivascular mononuclear cell infiltrates, myofiber damage, and perifascicular atrophy, whereas polymyositis exhibits endomysial inflammation and necrotic muscle fibers.

286

Q

What characterizes polymyositis?

A

Polymyositis là một rối loạn miễn dịch được đặc trưng bởi sự tăng biểu hiện MHC I trên cơ bắp, chủ yếu ảnh hưởng đến cơ bắp xương mà không liên quan đến da.

Polymyositis is an autoimmune disorder marked by increased MHC I expression on myofibers. It primarily affects skeletal muscle without skin involvement.

287

Q

What are the microscopic features of polymyositis?

A

Một cách vi microscopically, polymyositis thường cho thấy sự viêm nội bào cơ bắp chủ yếu bao gồm các tế bào CD8+ và các sợi cơ bắp tử thương.

Microscopically, polymyositis shows endomysial inflammation predominantly composed of CD8+ T cells and necrotic muscle fibers.

CNS + Eyes Flashcards by toki pham (2024)
Top Articles
Latest Posts
Article information

Author: Fr. Dewey Fisher

Last Updated:

Views: 5803

Rating: 4.1 / 5 (42 voted)

Reviews: 81% of readers found this page helpful

Author information

Name: Fr. Dewey Fisher

Birthday: 1993-03-26

Address: 917 Hyun Views, Rogahnmouth, KY 91013-8827

Phone: +5938540192553

Job: Administration Developer

Hobby: Embroidery, Horseback riding, Juggling, Urban exploration, Skiing, Cycling, Handball

Introduction: My name is Fr. Dewey Fisher, I am a powerful, open, faithful, combative, spotless, faithful, fair person who loves writing and wants to share my knowledge and understanding with you.